In clinical practice, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications (NSAIDs) are frequently used to treat pain, inflammation, and fever. Because NSAIDs inhibit the cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme, they impede prostaglandin synthesis, which accounts for their pharmacological actions. In humans, the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) comes in two forms: COX-1 and COX-2. COX-1 is necessary for numerous physiological housekeeping processes, including platelet aggregation, renal homeostasis maintenance, and gastric mucosa protection. Prostaglandins, which mediate reactions to pathologic processes like pain, fever, and inflammation, are synthesized by COX-2.(53) COX is inhibited by NSAIDS. Nevertheless, despite their advantageous benefits, they often conflict with the body's defenses against stomach lining deterioration and platelet dysfunction. As a result, many patients may find that their toxicity-related symptoms are unacceptable. The invention of more recent medications known as COX-2-specific inhibitors (coxibs), such as celecoxib, rofecoxib, etoricoxib, lumaricoxib, and valdecoxib, was made possible by this. They maintain the integrity of the stomach lining or platelet control while inhibiting inflammatory disorders. Selective COX-2 inhibitors are as effective as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), but they have a far better safety record, making it acceptable to use them to treat both acute and chronic pain, with or without inflammatory disorders. It is used to treat the signs and symptoms of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. An autoimmune condition called rheumatoid arthritis damages and destroys joints by inflaming the lining of the joints, causing pain, stiffness, swelling, and loss of joint function. The substance that cushions joints wears down over time, usually in weight-bearing joints, and this leads to osteoarthritis.(22)

CELECOXIB:

A specific inhibitor of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is celecoxib. This medication is licensed to treat the inflammation-related signs and symptoms of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Celecoxib predominantly inhibits COX-2 but not COX-1 in humans at therapeutic levels. Celecoxib has a better safety profile as compared to traditional non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medicines (NSAIDs), which block both cyclooxygenases.First of all Clinical research has shown that celecoxib effectively reduces edema, discomfort, and sensitivity in the joints while also lowering the risk of stomach ulcers. Furthermore, new research has shown that COX-2 inhibitors reduce the growth of colon polyps.(2) The chemical name of celecoxib is (4-[5-(4-methylphenyl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)-1H-pyrazol-1yl] benzenesulfonamide).(1)

Figure 1: Chemical Structure of Celecoxib

ETORICOXIB:

In the group of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) the newest addition of etoricoxib takes place known as selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors. The chemical name of etoricoxib is {5-chloro-3-(4-methanesulfonylphenyl)-6-methyl-[2,3]-bipyridinyl}. In 38 countries worldwide in Europe, Latin America and the Asia Pacific region ETX has been launched. The new drug application (NDA) has submitted a for ARCOXIA (etoricoxib) to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (USFDA) by Merck & Co. Inc., for the treatment of osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, chronic low back pain, acute pain, dysmenorrheal, acute gouty arthritis and ankylosing spondylitis.(54)

Figure 2: Chemical Structure of Etoricoxib

VALDECOXIB:

Valdecoxib is a diaryl substituted isoxazole with the trade name Vx2 (Novartis). The molecular weight of valdecoxib is 314.36. The chemical name of VDX is 4-(5-methyl- 3-phenyl-4-isoxazolyl)benzene sulphonamide. It is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that exhibits anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic properties which is use for the treatment of osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid arthritis. Even chronic administration of valdecoxib would not increase the risk of cardiac arrhythmia associated with QT prolongation to patients for the treatment of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis like disease. Valdecoxib is official only in the martindale extra pharmacopoeia.(103) Valdecoxib was immediately banned by Government decision (GSR NO- 510E) from 28-07-2005 after evidence showed its prolonged used leads to increased risk of heart attacks and stroke.(162)

Figure 3: Chemical Structure of Valdecoxib

PARECOXIB:

Parecoxib is a prodrug of valdecoxib. It is a selective cyclooxygenase 2 (COX 2) inhibitor. Parecoxib administered intramuscularly or intravenously in the body.(131) Parecoxib has little or no effect on platelet function. PRX have longer duration of action and  it reduced gastrointestinal risk which is  considered advantageous in the postoperative repair. Parecoxib can be rapidly hydrolysed into its valdecoxib which is a active metabolite of PRX, and valdecoxib further metabolized by cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP) into hydroxylated valdecoxib (OH-VX) as the major metabolite. However, the overdosing valdecoxib have been reported for renal safety and high risk of cardiovascular events of concerns. Therefore, it is necessary to monitor the parecoxib and its metabolites concentration in blood in order to control the concentration of valdecoxib in a reasonable range.(132)

Figure 4: Chemical Structure of Parecoxib

ROFECOXIB:

Rofecoxib belongs to the class of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) called as selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor (COX-2), which gives anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic effects. RFX is used for osteoarthritis symptoms, dysmenorrhea, and acute pain.(136) Rofecoxib is chemically known as 4-[4-(methyl-sulfonyl)phenyl]-3-phenyl-2(5H)-furanone.(138)  The rofecoxib was voluntarily withdrawn from the global markets because it increased risk of coronary thrombosis and cerebrovascular risk after its chronic use (about 18 months). However, for research purposes comprising characterization studies, preparation of new formulations, and also in clinical studies rofecoxib is currently used. According to Biopharmaceutics Classification System (low solubility and high permeability) RFX is a Class II compound and it has a long half-life (t1/2 = 17 h). Therefore, In the formulation studies of controlled release dosage forms, and also in new drug delivery systems it is used as a model drug.(136) Rofecoxib was immediately banned by Government decision (GSR NO-810E) from 13-12-2004 after evidence showed its prolonged used leads to increased risk of heart attacks.(162)

Figure 5: Chemical Structure of Rofecoxib

LUMIRACOXIB:

Lumaricoxib is a selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor developed for the symptomatic treatment of osteoarthritis and acute pain. Lumiracoxib chemically known as 2-[(2-fluoro-6-chlorophenyl)amino]-5-methyl benzeneacetic acid.(157) The molecular weight of LMX is 294 Da. Lumaricoxib is chemically differ from the other COX-2 inhibitors that it lacks a sulfur-containing moiety and possesses a carboxylic group that confers weakly acidic properties (pKa 4.7). It was recently withdrawn from the market in some countries, however it could be available in others.(161)

Figure 6: Chemical Structure of Lumiracoxib

Analytical techniques used for determination of Selctive COX-2 inhibitors:

For the determination of Selective COX-2 inhibitors in bulk and pharmaceutical formulations, an exhaustive literature search found numerous analytical techniques such as UV/Visible Spectrophotometry, HPLC, HPTLC, UPLC, LC-MS/MS, and bioanalytical approaches. Figure 7  shows different analytical methods implemented for the estimation of Selective COX-2 inhibitors

Figure 7: Analytical methods of Selective COX-2 Inhibitors

CELECOXIB:

Bio-analytical method for CXB

Bio-analysis is a sub-discipline of analytical chemistry covering the quantitative measurement of xenobiotics (drugs and their metabolites, and biological molecules in unnatural locations or concentrations) and biotics (macromolecules, proteins, DNA, large molecule drugs, metabolites) in biological systems. The summary of the reported bioanalytical methods is shown in Table 1.

The spectrophotometric methods have been accounted for the determination of CXB. The details of Spectrophotometry determination of basic principle, sample matrix, lambda max, solvent linearity range and the correlation coefficient are summarized in Table 2.

Liquid-Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy methods (LC-MS) for CXB:

In recent years, the combination of LC/MS has gained a lot of attention for the analysis of interest analytes in complex samples with improved performance. In brief, after a thorough examination, LC/MS interfaces are divided into two categories namely interfaces for indirect and direct input of column effluent. A mechanical mechanism is employed to transmit the column effluent to the MS vacuum at an indirect introduction interface. A classic example of an indirect introduction type of interface is the transportation system. In the case of the direct introduction system, the column effluent flows directly into the mass spectrometric vacuum system via a tube. Mainly, the most straightforward method of linking LC and MS appears to be the direct introduction.33 In this section, we have discussed the LC-MS methods for the determination of CXB in a dosage form Table 3.

*** Not Provided

HPLC method for CXB

The specificity of the HPLC method is excellent and simultaneously sufficient precision is also attainable. However, it has to be stated that the astonishing specificity, precision, and accuracy are attainable only if wide-ranging system suitability tests are carried before the HPLC analysis. For this reason, the expense to be paid for the high specificity, precision, and accuracy is also high. The summary of the reported HPLC methods is shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Summary of HPLC methods for the determination of CXB in a single and combined dosage form

Thin-layer chromatography is a popular technique for the analysis of a wide variety of organic and inorganic materials, because of its distinctive advantages such as minimal sample clean-up, a wide choice of mobile phases, flexibility in sample distinction, high sample loading capacity and low cost. The summary of the reported HPTLC methods is shown in Table 5.

Bio-analytical method for ETX

Bio-analysis is a sub-discipline of analytical chemistry covering the quantitative measurement of xenobiotics (drugs and their metabolites, and biological molecules in unnatural locations or concentrations) and biotics (macromolecules, proteins, DNA, large molecule drugs, metabolites) in biological systems. The summary of the reported bioanalytical methods is shown in Table 6.

Table 6: Bioanalytical determination of ETX

*** Not Provided

UV-Visible spectroscopy method for ETX

The spectrophotometric methods have been accounted for the determination of ETX. The details of Spectrophotometry determination of basic principle, sample matrix, lambda max, solvent linearity range and the correlation coefficient are summarized in Table 7.

Table 7: Spectrophotometric methods used for determination of ETX

*** Not Provided

Liquid-Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy methods (LC-MS) for ETX:

In recent years, the combination of LC/MS has gained a lot of attention for the analysis of interest analytes in complex samples with improved performance. In brief, after a thorough examination, LC/MS interfaces are divided into two categories namely interfaces for indirect and direct input of column effluent. A mechanical mechanism is employed to transmit the column effluent to the MS vacuum at an indirect introduction interface. A classic example of an indirect introduction type of interface is the transportation system. In the case of the direct introduction system, the column effluent flows directly into the mass spectrometric vacuum system via a tube. Mainly, the most straightforward method of linking LC and MS appears to be the direct introduction. In this section, we have discussed the LC-MS methods for the determination of ETX in a dosage form Table 8.

The specificity of the HPLC method is excellent and simultaneously sufficient precision is also attainable. However, it has to be stated that the astonishing specificity, precision, and accuracy are attainable only if wide-ranging system suitability tests are carried before the HPLC analysis. For this reason, the expense to be paid for the high specificity, precision, and accuracy is also high. The summary of the reported HPLC methods is shown in Table 9.

Table 9: Summary of HPLC methods for the determination of ETX in a single and combined dosage form
    

Thin-layer chromatography is a popular technique for the analysis of a wide variety of organic and inorganic materials, because of its distinctive advantages such as minimal sample clean-up, a wide choice of mobile phases, flexibility in sample distinction, high sample loading capacity and low cost. The summary of the reported HPTLC methods is shown in Table 10.

UPLC methods for ETX

Ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) is a new category of separation based on well-established principles of liquid chromatography, which utilizes sub-2-mm particles for the stationary phase. The developed UPLC method is validated and therefore could be further used for quantitative analysis of Etoricoxib. Sanjay Shesha Shetgar1*, Ramadevi Dharmasoth2, Bandlamudi Mallikarjuna Rao3, Basavaiah Keloth4 established UPLC method development and validation for simultaneous estimation of Etoricoxib and Thiocolchicoside in tablets. UPLC was carried out in Hibar, C18 column of dimension 100 × 2.1 mm, 1.8 ?m,at 30°C, by using  mobile phase 0.1% orthophosphoric acid (pH 2.5) and acetonitrile in a ratio of 90:10 (v/v). The column effluents were monitored at 256 nm using a Acquity Tunable UV detector at a flow rate of 0.3 ml/minute. The linearity of the calibration curve ranged from 1–6 ?g/ml of Thiocolchicoside and 15–90?g/ml of Etoricoxib and the regression coefficient (r2) was 0.999 for both Etoricoxib and Thiocolchicoside drugs.(102)

 VALDECOXIB:

Bio-analytical method for VDX

Bio-analysis is a sub-discipline of analytical chemistry covering the quantitative measurement of xenobiotics (drugs and their metabolites, and biological molecules in unnatural locations or concentrations) and biotics (macromolecules, proteins, DNA, large molecule drugs, metabolites) in biological systems. The summary of the reported bioanalytical methods is shown in Table 11.

The spectrophotometric methods have been accounted for the determination of VDX. The details of Spectrophotometry determination of basic principle, sample matrix, lambda max, solvent linearity range and the correlation coefficient are summarized in Table 12.

Liquid-Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy methods (LC-MS) for VDX:

In recent years, the combination of LC/MS has gained a lot of attention for the analysis of interest analytes in complex samples with improved performance. In brief, after a thorough examination, LC/MS interfaces are divided into two categories namely interfaces for indirect and direct input of column effluent. A mechanical mechanism is employed to transmit the column effluent to the MS vacuum at an indirect introduction interface. A classic example of an indirect introduction type of interface is the transportation system. In the case of the direct introduction system, the column effluent flows directly into the mass spectrometric vacuum system via a tube. Mainly, the most straightforward method of linking LC and MS appears to be the direct introduction.33 In this section, we have discussed the LC-MS methods for the determination of VDX in a dosage form Table 13.

Table 13. Summary of LC-MS methods for the determination of VDX in a dosage form

The specificity of the HPLC method is excellent and simultaneously sufficient precision is also attainable. However, it has to be stated that the astonishing specificity, precision, and accuracy are attainable only if wide-ranging system suitability tests are carried before the HPLC analysis. For this reason, the expense to be paid for the high specificity, precision, and accuracy is also high. The summary of the reported HPLC methods is shown in Table 14.

*** Not Provided

Thin-layer chromatography is a popular technique for the analysis of a wide variety of organic and inorganic materials, because of its distinctive advantages such as minimal sample clean-up, a wide choice of mobile phases, flexibility in sample distinction, high sample loading capacity and low cost. The summary of the reported HPTLC methods is shown in Table 15.

Bio-analytical method for PRX

Bio-analysis is a sub-discipline of analytical chemistry covering the quantitative measurement of xenobiotics (drugs and their metabolites, and biological molecules in unnatural locations or concentrations) and biotics (macromolecules, proteins, DNA, large molecule drugs, metabolites) in biological systems. The summary of the reported bioanalytical methods is shown in Table 16.

*** Not Provided

ROFECOXIB:

Bio-analytical method for RFX

Bio-analysis is a sub-discipline of analytical chemistry covering the quantitative measurement of xenobiotics (drugs and their metabolites, and biological molecules in unnatural locations or concentrations) and biotics (macromolecules, proteins, DNA, large molecule drugs, metabolites) in biological systems. The summary of the reported bioanalytical methods is shown in Table 17.

The spectrophotometric methods have been accounted for the determination of RFX. The details of Spectrophotometry determination of basic principle, sample matrix, lambda max, solvent linearity range and the correlation coefficient are summarized in Table 18.

In recent years, the combination of LC/MS has gained a lot of attention for the analysis of interest analytes in complex samples with improved performance. In brief, after a thorough examination, LC/MS interfaces are divided into two categories namely interfaces for indirect and direct input of column effluent. A mechanical mechanism is employed to transmit the column effluent to the MS vacuum at an indirect introduction interface. A classic example of an indirect introduction type of interface is the transportation system. In the case of the direct introduction system, the column effluent flows directly into the mass spectrometric vacuum system via a tube. Mainly, the most straightforward method of linking LC and MS appears to be the direct introduction.33 In this section, we have discussed the LC-MS methods for the determination of RFX in a dosage form Table 19.

HPLC method for RFX

The specificity of the HPLC method is excellent and simultaneously sufficient precision is also attainable. However, it has to be stated that the astonishing specificity, precision, and accuracy are attainable only if wide-ranging system suitability tests are carried before the HPLC analysis. For this reason, the expense to be paid for the high specificity, precision, and accuracy is also high. The summary of the reported HPLC methods is shown in Table 20.

Table 20: Summary of HPLC methods for the determination of RFX in a single and combined dosage form

Thin-layer chromatography is a popular technique for the analysis of a wide variety of organic and inorganic materials, because of its distinctive advantages such as minimal sample clean-up, a wide choice of mobile phases, flexibility in sample distinction, high sample loading capacity and low cost. The summary of the reported HPTLC methods is shown in Table 21.

Table 21: Summary of HPTLC methods for the determination of RFX in a single and combined dosage form

Bio-analytical method for LMX

Bio-analysis is a sub-discipline of analytical chemistry covering the quantitative measurement of xenobiotics (drugs and their metabolites, and biological molecules in unnatural locations or concentrations) and biotics (macromolecules, proteins, DNA, large molecule drugs, metabolites) in biological systems. The summary of the reported bioanalytical methods is shown in Table 22.

*** Not Provided

The spectrophotometric methods have been accounted for the determination of LMX. The developed UV spectroscopy method is validated and therefore could be further used for quantitative analysis of lumiracoxib. Moreira, T.S., Pierre, M.B.R. , Fraga, C.A.M. , Sousa, VP established development and validation of HPLC and UV spectrophotometric methods for the determination of lumiracoxib in tablets. The UV method was performed with ethanol as a solvent with the 2-30 ?g/ml linearity. The UV method based on absorbance at 275 nm and the correlation coefficient  (r2) is 0.999.(159)

Liquid-Chromatography-Mass Spectroscopy methods (LC-MS) for LMX:

In recent years, the combination of LC/MS has gained a lot of attention for the analysis of interest analytes in complex samples with improved performance. In brief, after a thorough examination, LC/MS interfaces are divided into two categories namely interfaces for indirect and direct input of column effluent. A mechanical mechanism is employed to transmit the column effluent to the MS vacuum at an indirect introduction interface. A classic example of an indirect introduction type of interface is the transportation system. In the case of the direct introduction system, the column effluent flows directly into the mass spectrometric vacuum system via a tube. Mainly, the most straightforward method of linking LC and MS appears to be the direct introduction.  In this section, we have discussed the LC-MS methods for the determination of LMX in a dosage form Table 23.

The specificity of the HPLC method is excellent and simultaneously sufficient precision is also attainable. However, it has to be stated that the astonishing specificity, precision, and accuracy are attainable only if wide-ranging system suitability tests are carried before the HPLC analysis. For this reason, the expense to be paid for the high specificity, precision, and accuracy is also high. The developed HPLC method is validated and therefore could be further used for quantitative analysis of lumiracoxib. Moreira, T.S., Pierre, M.B.R. , Fraga, C.A.M. , Sousa, VP established development and validation of HPLC and UV spectrophotometric methods for the determination of lumiracoxib in tablets. The HPLC method was performed on the chromatographic column was packed with propylsulfonic acid bonded with silica gel by using 10 mM phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) -  water – acetonitrile (10 : 40 : 50, v/v/v) as a mobile phase at flow rate 1.0 ml/min. The linearity of the drug is 2-30 ?g/ml and the detection of drug at 278 nm by using UV detector.(159)

CONCLUSION

The present review article provides comprehensive data of various analytical and bioanalytical methods developed for Selective COX-2 Inhibitors alone and in combinations. For analysis purpose, different analytical methods have been reported that includes HPLC, HPTLC, UPLC, UV spectroscopy, etc. The method along with their details concerning the mobile phase, stationary phase, retention time, etc., have been summarized in tabular form that will more helpful for the researchers. In the future, enlisted data can be used for the development of analytical methods bio-analysis of Selective COX-2 inhibitors in pharmaceutical and biological formulations. Finally, it presents an opportunity for greater information on what has already been done and what new methods and changes can be developed to get a better estimation of Selective COX-2 inhibitors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Authors are thankful to VYWS, Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Borgaon (Meghe), Wardha, Maharashtra, India for providing necessary library facilities.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare that no conflict of interest

ABBREVIATIONS

1. UV/VIS - Ultra violet/visible spectroscopy
2. HPLC - High-performance liquid chromatography
3. HPTLC - High-performance thin layer chromatography
4. LC-MS/MS - Liquid chromatography-mass spectroscopy-mass spectroscopy
5. UPLC – Ultra performance liquid chromatograpy
6. TLC - Thin layer chromatography
7. RP - Reverse phase
8. nm - Nanometer
9. ?g/mL - Micro gram per Milliliter
10. PDA - Photo diode array
11. CXB – Celecoxib
12. ETX – Etoricoxib
13. VDX – Valdecoxib
14. PRX – Parecoxib
15. RFX – Rofecoxib
16. LMX – Lamiracoxib
17. REP – Repaglinide
18. DTX – Docetaxel
19. IBU – Ibuprofen
20. DIC – Diclofenac
21. NIF – Niflumic Acid
22. OH-CXB – Hydroxycelecoxib
23. COOH-CXB – Carboxycelecoxib
24. SCA – Salicylic acid
25. KPF – Ketoprofen
26. NMS – Nimesulide
27. DEZ – Dezocine
28. DEX – Dexmedetomidine
29. AMD – Amlodipine
30. CUR – Curcumin
31. ATV-Ca – Atorvastatin calcium
32. RMP – Ramipril
33. PCT – Paracetamol
34. RLZ – Riluzole
35. THC – Thiocholchicoside
36. PGBN – Pregabalin
37. TOP – Tolperisone
38. DRT – Drotraverine
39. TNZ – Tizanidine
40. OH-VDX – Hydroxylated valdecoxib
41. MSPC –  Mosapride Citrate?

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162. https://cdsco.gov.in/opencms/resources/UploadCDSCOWeb/2018/UploadConsumer/banneddrugs.pdf