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  • Optimizing Asthma Care In The Elderly: A Guidelines-Based Therapeutic Approach For Enhanced Diagnosis And Management
  • Bachelor of Pharmacy Final year Student, Dr. Rajendra Gode Institute of Pharmacy, Amravati.

Abstract

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease that predominantly affects the airways, leading to symptoms such as wheezing, breathlessness, and chest tightness. In elderly patients, who constitute approximately 7-10% of asthma cases, the condition presents unique challenges due to age-related physiological changes, comorbidities, and pharmacological sensitivities. Diagnosing asthma in this population is often complicated by the overlap of symptoms with other respiratory conditions like Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), further exacerbated by smoking history and cognitive decline. Pulmonary function tests, especially spirometry and bronchodilator reversibility tests, are essential but underutilized in this demographic, leading to under-diagnosis and suboptimal management. Management of asthma in the elderly requires a tailored approach, guided by well-established protocols such as those from the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) and the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP). These guidelines advocate the use of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) and long-acting beta-agonists (LABAs) as cornerstones of therapy, with adjustments for physiological and pharmacokinetic changes in older adults. Non-pharmacological interventions, including lifestyle modifications and vaccination, also play a crucial role in preventing exacerbations. However, the increased risk of adverse drug reactions and polypharmacy further complicates treatment, requiring personalized care to mitigate risks. This review emphasizes the importance of adhering to guideline-based therapeutic strategies and highlights the need for further research focused on age-specific clinical trials and biologic therapies tailored to the elderly. By addressing the complexities of asthma in elderly patients, healthcare providers can enhance disease management and improve the quality of life for this vulnerable population.

Keywords

Asthma in elderly patients, Airway remodeling , Bronchodilator therapy, Polypharmacy, Vaccination in asthma, Patient education

Introduction

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the airways characterized by recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing, particularly at night or in the early morning. This inflammation results in bronchial hyperresponsiveness and airflow obstruction, which can be variable but often reversible with treatment. It involves complex interactions between genetic predispositions and environmental factors, with airway remodeling contributing to persistent symptoms over time [1]. The prevalence of asthma in elderly patients is significant, with studies indicating that asthma affects approximately 7-10% of individuals over the age of 65 [2] . This population is particularly vulnerable due to physiological changes in the respiratory system, such as decreased lung elasticity and weakened immune response, which may complicate both diagnosis and management [3] . Elderly individuals with asthma also frequently suffer from comorbidities like chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cardiovascular diseases, and metabolic disorders, which further complicate treatment approaches and increase the risk of adverse drug reactions[4] . Moreover, aging leads to changes in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, making older adults more susceptible to medication side effects, particularly from corticosteroids, which are a mainstay in asthma treatment [5] . Given these complexities, the objective of this review is to highlight the importance of a guidelines-based therapeutic approach tailored specifically for elderly asthma patients. Adhering to established guidelines such as those from the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) can optimize disease management by incorporating age-specific recommendations that address the physiological, pharmacological, and psychosocial factors unique to this population [6]. By emphasizing individualized care based on clinical guidelines, healthcare providers can better navigate the challenges of asthma management in elderly patients, thereby improving outcomes and quality of life.

PATHOPHYSIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS:

Asthma management in elderly patients presents unique challenges due to age-related physiological changes, immune system alterations, and the presence of comorbid conditions. The pathophysiology of asthma in older adults is influenced significantly by the natural decline in lung function associated with aging. Decreased elasticity in lung tissue, stiffening of the chest wall, and reduced respiratory muscle strength contribute to impaired ventilation and gas exchange, exacerbating asthma symptoms in the elderly [7]. Age-related changes also involve the reduction in ?-adrenergic receptor responsiveness, leading to diminished bronchodilator effects of asthma medications [8] . Immune system alterations in elderly patients manifest as a shift toward a pro-inflammatory state, often referred to as "inflamm-aging." This chronic low-grade inflammation disrupts normal immune regulation, contributing to heightened airway inflammation and increased asthma severity [9]. Furthermore, elderly patients experience a decline in innate and adaptive immune responses, such as reduced T-cell function and impaired pathogen recognition, making them more susceptible to respiratory infections that can worsen asthma control [10] . Comorbid conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), and other chronic illnesses, complicate asthma management by overlapping symptoms and complicating treatment regimens. For example, the presence of COPD in elderly asthma patients, often referred to as asthma-COPD overlap (ACO), necessitates careful differentiation and tailored treatment strategies due to the distinct pathophysiological mechanisms of both diseases [11] . Cardiovascular conditions, such as hypertension and heart failure, may limit the use of certain asthma therapies like ?-agonists due to potential adverse effects on heart rate and blood pressure . Therefore, comprehensive asthma management guidelines for the elderly should emphasize personalized treatment approaches, including pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions, with careful consideration of the pathophysiological changes and comorbid conditions [12] .

 

CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS OF ASTHMA IN THE ELDERLY

Diagnostic Challenges: Similarities between asthma and other respiratory conditions like COPD

Diagnosing asthma in elderly patients presents significant challenges due to its symptom overlap with other respiratory conditions, especially Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD). In particular, COPD and asthma share symptoms like chronic cough, wheezing, and dyspnea, making differential diagnosis complex. Misdiagnosis is common, particularly in older patients with a smoking history, where asthma is often mistaken for COPD [13] Additionally, co-morbid conditions and age-related cognitive and physical impairments contribute to under-diagnosis[14] .

Pulmonary Function Testing (PFT): Role of spirometry, peak flow, and bronchodilator reversibility

Pulmonary function tests, including spirometry, peak expiratory flow, and bronchodilator reversibility, are vital tools for diagnosing asthma in elderly patients. Spirometry can help differentiate between asthma and COPD by measuring the reversibility of airway obstruction. Asthma diagnosis is supported when a 15% improvement in Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1) occurs after bronchodilator administration [15]. Despite its importance, a large portion of elderly patients do not undergo PFTs, leading to under-diagnosis and suboptimal management [16].

3.3 Differential Diagnosis: Identifying asthma from other respiratory disorders

Differentiating asthma from COPD is essential as both conditions have different treatments and prognoses. COPD generally presents with irreversible airway obstruction, while asthma is characterized by reversible obstruction. Spirometry and bronchodilator testing are crucial in distinguishing the two, but advanced methods like bronchial hyperresponsiveness testing and high-resolution CT can further aid diagnosis [17]. Identifying key clinical features like atopy and significant bronchodilator responsiveness also favors an asthma diagnosis[18].

GUIDELINES FOR ASTHMA MANAGEMENT IN ELDERLY PATIENTS

Asthma management in elderly patients requires a distinct approach due to age-related physiological and pharmacokinetic changes. The Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) and the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP) offer key guidelines tailored to these needs.

Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) Guidelines: Recommendations for Elderly Populations

The GINA guidelines have been instrumental in shaping asthma management globally, focusing on asthma control over severity for treatment decisions. They emphasize the importance of regular assessments and adjustments in therapy, especially for the elderly, due to their unique physiological responses to medications and potential comorbidities. Studies highlight the stepwise approach in GINA's guidelines, particularly the use of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) combined with long-acting beta agonists (LABAs) to maintain control of symptoms [19,20].

National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP): Strategies and Updated Guidelines

The NAEPP guidelines provide specific recommendations for elderly patients, acknowledging the increased severity of asthma in this population. These guidelines highlight pharmacotherapy based on age groups and stress the importance of ICS as first-line therapy, with additional considerations for more severe cases. The NAEPP guidelines also advocate for the careful use of short-acting beta-agonists (SABA) and emphasize the need for personalized care depending on the level of asthma control [21,22] .

Tailoring Treatment to Age: Adjustments in Therapy Based on Physiological and Pharmacokinetic Changes

Asthma management in elderly patients is complicated by age-related pharmacokinetic changes. The elderly often face a decline in drug metabolism and renal clearance, which necessitates adjustments in the dosage of asthma medications. The sensitivity of the cardiovascular system to drugs like beta-agonists diminishes, increasing the risk of side effects such as orthostatic hypotension. Hence, therapy must be personalized to achieve the best therapeutic outcomes, with careful monitoring to avoid complications [23] .

PHARMACOLOGICAL THERAPY IN ELDERLY ASTHMA PATIENTS

Inhaled Corticosteroids (ICS): First-line therapy and dosing considerations in elderly patients

Inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) are considered the cornerstone of asthma treatment and are recommended as first-line therapy for elderly patients due to their anti-inflammatory effects, which improve lung function and reduce exacerbations [24] . However, ICS dosing in elderly patients requires careful monitoring to minimize systemic side effects such as osteoporosis and adrenal suppression, particularly at high doses [25] . Studies indicate that even low doses are effective in this population, but patient adherence may be compromised due to difficulties with inhaler techniques or cognitive decline[26] .

Long-Acting Beta-Agonists (LABAs): Efficacy and safety profile in older adults

Long-acting beta-agonists (LABAs) are commonly used as add-on therapy when ICS alone does not provide adequate control. LABAs improve lung function and reduce symptoms, but they should always be prescribed in combination with ICS due to the risk of severe exacerbations when used as monotherapy [27] . In elderly patients, LABAs are generally well-tolerated, but side effects like tremors and cardiovascular risks, such as arrhythmias, should be monitored carefully[28] .

Combination Therapies (ICS/LABA): Benefits and risks in elderly patients

Combining ICS with LABAs is an effective strategy for elderly asthma patients, as it offers enhanced control of symptoms and reduction of exacerbations compared to ICS alone[29] . However, the combination can increase the risk of systemic side effects, particularly at higher ICS doses, including adrenal suppression and osteoporosis[30] . Thus, it is crucial to optimize dosing and monitor elderly patients for comorbidities that may interact with these therapies [31] .

Leukotriene Receptor Antagonists (LTRAs): Role in managing asthma and minimizing side effects

Leukotriene receptor antagonists (LTRAs) such as montelukast are considered as an alternative add-on to ICS for elderly patients who may experience side effects from LABAs or who struggle with proper inhaler use. LTRAs have anti-inflammatory properties and can reduce both symptoms and exacerbation rates in elderly asthma patients [32] . They are particularly useful for patients with concurrent comorbidities like cardiovascular disease due to their relatively safer profile compared to LABAs[33] .

Short-Acting Beta-Agonists (SABAs): Rescue medications and usage frequency in the elderly

Short-acting beta-agonists (SABAs) remain essential as rescue medications for acute asthma symptoms. However, frequent reliance on SABAs in elderly patients is an indicator of poor asthma control, signaling the need to adjust the primary controller therapy [34] . Due to potential side effects like tachycardia and hypokalemia, their use should be carefully managed, particularly in elderly individuals with cardiac comorbidities [35] .

Systemic Corticosteroids: Limited use due to side effects and comorbidities

Systemic corticosteroids are typically reserved for severe exacerbations due to their well-documented side effects, including bone loss, adrenal suppression, and immunosuppression, which are especially concerning in the elderly[35] . Long-term use should be avoided, and when necessary, the lowest effective dose should be used for the shortest duration possible[36] .

NON-PHARMACOLOGICAL INTERVENTIONS: EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES IN CHRONIC DISEASE MANAGEMENT

Non-pharmacological interventions play a crucial role in managing chronic diseases, reducing complications, and improving patient outcomes. This review focuses on three key areas: lifestyle modifications, environmental control, and vaccinations.

6.1. Lifestyle Modifications

Lifestyle changes, including smoking cessation, weight management, and increased physical activity, are foundational in managing chronic diseases, especially in conditions such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cardiovascular diseases.

6.1.1Smoking Cessation:

Smoking cessation is the most effective intervention for halting the progression of COPD and other chronic conditions. Research indicates that a combination of behavioral therapy and pharmacological interventions, such as nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) and varenicline, significantly improves long-term cessation rates[37,38] .

Weight Management:

 Smoking cessation can lead to weight gain, which is a common concern. Studies have shown that incorporating weight management strategies, such as exercise and dietary counseling, into smoking cessation programs can mitigate post-cessation weight gain and maintain abstinence[39] .

Physical Activity:

Regular exercise is critical in managing conditions such as COPD and obesity. While not always directly related to smoking cessation, exercise interventions support overall health improvement and help manage symptoms of chronic diseases [40] .

Environmental Control:

Controlling environmental factors, such as allergens and air quality, is crucial for patients with respiratory conditions like asthma and COPD.

6.2.1Allergen Avoidance:

Patients with asthma and other respiratory diseases benefit significantly from allergen avoidance and air quality management, as exposure to allergens can exacerbate symptoms[41] .

Air Quality Management:

Improving indoor air quality through the reduction of pollutants, such as smoke and dust, reduces the frequency of exacerbations in patients with respiratory diseases [42] .

Vaccinations:

Vaccination against common respiratory pathogens like influenza and pneumococcus is vital in preventing complications in patients with chronic diseases.

Influenza and Pneumococcal Vaccination:

Vaccination significantly reduces the risk of severe respiratory infections, which can cause exacerbations in conditions like COPD. Studies highlight the importance of routine vaccination for these patients to prevent disease progression and hospitalizations [38] .

ADVERSE DRUG REACTIONS AND POLYPHARMACY

Polypharmacy, the concurrent use of multiple medications, is a significant issue among the elderly, leading to an increased risk of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) and drug interactions. In particular, the elderly population is vulnerable due to age-related physiological changes, comorbidities, and complex drug regimens. This review discusses the key challenges associated with polypharmacy, including drug interactions, adverse effects of specific medications, and the importance of monitoring and deprescribing in this population.

Drug Interactions in the Elderly

Polypharmacy significantly increases the risk of drug-drug interactions, particularly in older adults who often have multiple chronic conditions. Cardiovascular drugs, central nervous system depressants, and diuretics frequently interact with other medications, raising the risk of severe ADRs. In patients with cardiovascular diseases, beta-blockers can interact with bronchodilators, leading to diminished therapeutic effects, while anticholinergics used in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) may exacerbate cognitive decline in older adults [43] .

Adverse Effects of Specific Medications:

Corticosteroids:

Long-term corticosteroid use in elderly patients can lead to osteoporosis, cataracts, skin thinning, and increased cardiovascular risk. Oral corticosteroids, particularly at high doses, are linked to significant systemic adverse effects such as bone loss and adrenal suppression [44] . Inhaled corticosteroids, when used at higher doses, also increase the risk of osteoporosis [45] .

Bronchodilators:

Beta-agonists, often prescribed for asthma and COPD, are associated with cardiovascular complications, including arrhythmias and myocardial ischemia in elderly patients. They may also exacerbate existing heart conditions, increase the risk of tremors, and impact electrolyte balance, contributing to osteoporosis [46] .

Monitoring and Deprescribing:

Regular monitoring and evaluation of drug regimens are critical in minimizing the risks associated with polypharmacy. A careful review of medications to identify unnecessary or harmful drugs can reduce ADRs and improve patient outcomes. Deprescribing, the process of tapering or discontinuing unnecessary medications, is particularly beneficial for the elderly, as it reduces polypharmacy-related risks [47] .

COMORBIDITIES IN ELDERLY ASTHMA PATIENTS

Elderly asthma patients often present with multiple comorbidities that complicate the management and treatment of asthma. Common comorbidities such as hypertension, diabetes, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) significantly influence asthma outcomes and necessitate integrated management strategies.

Impact of Comorbidities on Asthma Treatment

Hypertension and Diabetes:

Hypertension is one of the most prevalent comorbidities in elderly asthma patients, with studies indicating that nearly 38.4% of such patients also suffer from this condition. Diabetes, affecting approximately 17.2% of elderly asthmatic patients, further complicates asthma management due to its association with poor lung function and increased hospitalization rates [48] . The presence of both conditions can worsen asthma control and lead to more frequent exacerbations[49] .

COPD:

COPD is frequently misdiagnosed as asthma in elderly patients, leading to suboptimal treatment. Approximately 19% of elderly asthma patients also suffer from COPD, exacerbating breathing difficulties and increasing asthma mortality rates . Misdiagnosis and mismanagement of these conditions can result in ineffective asthma treatment[50] . Additionally, asthma and COPD overlap syndrome (ACOS) further complicates treatment due to overlapping symptoms and exacerbation patterns [51] .

Management Strategies

Integrated Therapy for Hypertension and Diabetes:

Treating asthma in elderly patients with comorbid hypertension and diabetes requires careful adjustment of asthma medications, such as corticosteroids, which may exacerbate these conditions [52] . Beta-blockers, commonly prescribed for hypertension, can worsen asthma, necessitating careful medication management to prevent adverse interactions.

Managing COPD Comorbidities:

Asthma treatment in elderly patients with COPD requires a combined approach, including the use of bronchodilators and corticosteroids. However, this increases the risk of complications like osteoporosis and arrhythmias. Proper use of inhaler techniques and adherence to medication regimens are crucial for improving outcomes in these patients [53] .

ADHERENCE TO THERAPY IN ELDERLY PATIENTS:

Barriers to Adherence

Adherence to therapy in elderly patients is significantly hindered by cognitive decline, physical limitations, and social factors. Cognitive impairment, especially in patients with dementia, poses a substantial challenge, as it reduces the patient’s ability to understand and follow complex treatment regimens. Studies have identified that memory issues, difficulty in managing multiple medications, and a lack of awareness of the illness further complicate adherence behaviors. Social factors, such as living alone and inadequate family support, exacerbate these issues[54] . In asthma and COPD patients, barriers like poor inhaler technique and physical limitations, such as arthritis, also impact medication adherence [55] . Additionally, economic factors and low health literacy contribute to the problem, with many elderly patients unable to afford or understand their prescribed treatments[56] .

Improving Compliance

To improve adherence, it is essential to simplify treatment regimens and use aids like inhalers with spacers. Simplified medication regimens, such as reducing the frequency of doses or using combination medications, have shown success in promoting adherence [57] . Using devices like inhalers with spacers not only improves medication delivery but also makes it easier for elderly patients with physical limitations to manage their condition [58] . Patient education is another critical factor, as well-informed patients are more likely to adhere to prescribed therapies. Programs that provide education on the importance of regular medication use, along with proper inhaler techniques, have been shown to improve compliance rates[59] .

ROLE OF PATIENT EDUCATION AND SELF-MANAGEMENT

Asthma Action Plans

Developing personalized asthma action plans is essential for elderly patients to manage exacerbations and maintain asthma control. Written action plans are shown to improve asthma management by helping patients recognize symptoms and adjust treatment accordingly[60] . Personalized action plans allow elderly patients to optimize self-care by managing symptoms and using medications correctly [61] .

Caregiver Involvement

Family members and caregivers play a crucial role in asthma management, particularly for elderly patients. Caregivers can assist in monitoring symptoms, managing medications, and recognizing the early signs of asthma exacerbations. Studies have shown that involving caregivers improves asthma outcomes, as they help ensure adherence to action plans and prompt intervention during flare-ups [62] . Caregiver confidence and understanding are critical in helping elderly patients maintain asthma control and avoid severe exacerbations [63] .

Self-Monitoring Techniques

Using self-monitoring tools such as peak flow meters helps elderly patients detect early signs of asthma exacerbations and manage their condition more effectively. Although peak flow monitoring is beneficial for detecting variability in airway function, some research suggests that symptom-based self-monitoring may be equally effective in preventing severe outcomes [64] . Educating elderly patients on using such tools, combined with regular caregiver support, enhances overall asthma management and reduces hospital visits [65] .

FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND RESEARCH

Need for Age-Specific Clinical Trials

Elderly patients are frequently underrepresented in clinical trials, despite their higher disease burden and different responses to therapies compared to younger populations. Currently, only a small proportion of oncology trials are specifically designed for the elderly, even though more than 60% of new cancer cases occur in individuals over the age of 65 [66] . Furthermore, age-based exclusions in clinical trials, including those for cardiovascular and oncologic conditions, limit the generalizability of trial results to older adults [67] . This age-related gap in clinical trials has hindered the development of evidence-based therapies tailored for the elderly. Specific clinical trials for older populations should focus on comorbidities, treatment tolerability, and functional outcomes, to create better, more personalized therapeutic strategies [68] .

Biological Therapies and Innovations

Recent advancements in cancer treatment, particularly in the areas of targeted therapies and immunotherapies, hold promise for elderly patients, although their effectiveness and safety remain less well-documented in this population. Biological therapies, such as immune checkpoint inhibitors, have shown efficacy in elderly populations but still require further investigation regarding long-term outcomes and management of age-related comorbidities [69] . However, specific challenges such as immunosenescence (the gradual decline of the immune system with age) may influence the response to these treatments, necessitating further studies on the optimal use of biological therapies in elderly patients [70] . Further research is essential to explore the potential of biomarkers to predict therapeutic response and to develop personalized treatment regimens for the elderly based on these biological innovations.

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion, asthma in elderly patients presents a unique and complex challenge due to age-related physiological changes, comorbid conditions, and the intricacies of pharmacotherapy. Managing asthma in this population requires a tailored approach that integrates guideline-based strategies such as those from the Global Initiative for Asthma (GINA) and the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program (NAEPP). These frameworks emphasize individualized care, frequent monitoring, and appropriate pharmacotherapy adjustments to mitigate the risks of adverse drug reactions and polypharmacy, common in older adults.Non-pharmacological interventions, such as lifestyle modifications, environmental control, and vaccinations, play an essential role in enhancing overall health outcomes and reducing asthma exacerbations. Equally important is the integration of patient education through personalized asthma action plans, which empower elderly patients to manage their condition proactively.Future research must focus on age-specific clinical trials and innovative therapies, ensuring that treatments are both effective and safe for elderly populations. By adopting a multifaceted approach that encompasses clinical guidelines, pharmacological adjustments, and patient education, healthcare providers can significantly improve asthma management in elderly patients, thereby enhancing their quality of life and reducing morbidity.

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  41. Lutter, J., Lukas, M., Schwarzkopf, L., Jörres, R., Studnicka, M., Kahnert, K., Karrasch, S., Bewig, B., Vogelmeier, C., & Holle, R., 2020. Utilization and determinants of use of non-pharmacological interventions in COPD: Results of the COSYCONET cohort.. Respiratory medicine, 171, pp. 106087 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmed.2020.106087.
  42. Wirth, I., Penz, E., & Marciniuk, D., 2020. Examination of COPD management in patients hospitalized with an acute exacerbation of COPD. Canadian Journal of Respiratory, Critical Care, and Sleep Medicine, 6, pp. 14 - 23. https://doi.org/10.1080/24745332.2020.1719941.
  43. Sheikh-Taha, M., & Asmar, M., 2021. Polypharmacy and severe potential drug-drug interactions among older adults with cardiovascular disease in the United States. BMC Geriatrics, 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12877-021-02183-0.
  44. Newnham, D., 2001. Asthma Medications and their Potential Adverse Effects in the Elderly. Drug Safety, 24, pp. 1065-1080. https://doi.org/10.2165/00002018-200124140-00005.
  45. Rossi, A., Zanardi, E., Zamboni, M., & Rossi, A., 2015. Optimizing Treatment of Elderly COPD Patients: What Role for Inhaled Corticosteroids?. Drugs & Aging, 32, pp. 679-687. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40266-015-0291-8.
  46. Gupta, P., & O'Mahony, M., 2008. Potential Adverse Effects of Bronchodilators in the Treatment of Airways Obstruction in Older People. Drugs & Aging, 25, pp. 415-443. https://doi.org/10.2165/00002512-200825050-00005.
  47. Kristjansson, S., & Wyller, T., 2010. [Discontinuation of prophylactic drugs to the elderly].. Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening : tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke, 130 17, pp. 1726-8 . https://doi.org/10.4045/tidsskr.10.0071.
  48. Ogbu, C., Sarker, P., Oparanma, C., Ogbu, S., Stouras, I., Eze, E., Ndugba, C., Ujah, O., & Kirby, R., 2023. Prevalence of Comorbidities among United States Adults with asthma and Their Association with Asthma Severity.. . https://doi.org/10.1101/2023.08.27.23294694.
  49. Meier, J., Lopez, J., & Siegel, D. (1999). Prevalence and Treatment of Hypertension Complicated by Comorbid Conditions.. Journal of clinical hypertension, 1 3, 209-211 .
  50. Pandya, R., Shah, A., Francis, S., Shah, K., Shah, P., & George, A., 2016. Under-diagnosis of asthma in elderly. Indian Journal of Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, 30, pp. 27 - 31. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-6691.187565.
  51. Mahdavian, M., Power, B., Asghari, S., & Pike, J., 2018. Effects of Comorbidities on Asthma Hospitalization and Mortality Rates: A Systematic Review. Canadian Respiratory Journal, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6460379.
  52. Trinh, H., Ban, G., Lee, J., & Park, H., 2016. Leukotriene Receptor Antagonists for the Treatment of Asthma in Elderly Patients. Drugs & Aging, 33, pp. 699-710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40266-016-0401-2.
  53. Ierodiakonou, D., Sifaki-Pistolla, D., Kampouraki, M., Poulorinakis, I., Papadokostakis, P., Gialamas, I., Athanasiou, P., Bempi, V., Lampraki, I., Tsiligianni, I., Karan, M., Kampouraki, M., Ierodiakonou, D., Tsiligianni, I., Lintovoi, E., Karanassos, D., Papadokostakis, P., Poulorinakis, I., Maltezis, K., Chorti, M., Petrovitsos, E., Dimopoulou, S., Hamind, S., Gialamas, I., Athanasiou, P., Bempi, V., & Lampraki, I., 2020. Adherence to inhalers and comorbidities in COPD patients. A cross-sectional primary care study from Greece. BMC Pulmonary Medicine, 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12890-020-01296-3.
  54. Arlt, S., Lindner, R., Rösler, A., & Renteln-Kruse, W., 2008. Adherence to Medication in Patients with Dementia. Drugs & Aging, 25, pp. 1033-1047. https://doi.org/10.2165/0002512-200825120-00005.
  55. Gillisen, A., 2007. Patient's adherence in asthma.. Journal of physiology and pharmacology : an official journal of the Polish Physiological Society, 58 Suppl 5 Pt 1, pp. 205-22 .
  56. Restrepo, R., Álvarez, M., Wittnebel, L., Sorenson, H., Wettstein, R., Vines, D., Sikkema-Ortiz, J., Gardner, D., & Wilkins, R., 2008. Medication adherence issues in patients treated for COPD. International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 3, pp. 371 - 384. https://doi.org/10.2147/COPD.S3036.
  57. Campbell, N., Boustani, M., Skopelja, E., Gao, S., Unverzagt, F., & Murray, M. (2012). Medication adherence in older adults with cognitive impairment: a systematic evidence-based review.. The American journal of geriatric pharmacotherapy, 10 3, 165-77 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjopharm.2012.04.004.
  58. Blake, K., 2017. Improving adherence to asthma medications: current knowledge and future perspectives. Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine, 23, pp. 62–70. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCP.0000000000000334.
  59. O'Conor, R., Wolf, M., Smith, S., Martynenko, M., Vicencio, D., Sano, M., Wisnivesky, J., & Federman, A., 2015. Health literacy, cognitive function, proper use, and adherence to inhaled asthma controller medications among older adults with asthma.. Chest, 147 5, pp. 1307-1315 . https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.14-0914.
  60. Cowie, R., 2003. Written self-management plans improve asthma control.. Canadian respiratory journal, 10 3, pp. 157 . https://doi.org/10.1155/2003/653513.
  61. Powell, H., & Gibson, P., 2002. Options for self-management education for adults with asthma.. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 1, pp. CD004107 . https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004107.
  62. Marshall, T., Asperen, P., Selvadurai, H., & Robinson, P., 2013. Don't write off paediatric asthma action plans just yet. Primary Care Respiratory Journal: Journal of the General Practice Airways Group, 22, pp. 144 - 145. https://doi.org/10.4104/pcrj.2013.00049.
  63. Choi, J., & Kweon, Y., 2017. [Effects of Education about Action Plans according to Self-Monitoring on Self-Management Adherence, Knowledge, Symptom Control, and Quality of Life among Adult Asthma Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial].. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 47 5, pp. 613-623 . https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2017.47.5.613.
  64. Turner, M., Taylor, D., Bennett, R., & Fitzgerald, J., 1998. A randomized trial comparing peak expiratory flow and symptom self-management plans for patients with asthma attending a primary care clinic.. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 157 2, pp. 540-6 . https://doi.org/10.1164/AJRCCM.157.2.9703060.
  65. Gibson, P., Coughlan, J., Wilson, A., Abramson, M., Bauman, A., Hensley, M., & Walters, E., 2000. Self-management education and regular practitioner review for adults with asthma.. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2, pp. CD001117 .
  66. Wu, B., Yang, Y., Tang, Y., Zheng, Y., Xie, M., Yang, K., & Wu, G., 2021. Characteristics of elderly-specific oncology trials registered in ClinicalTrials.gov.. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 39, pp. 12040-12040. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2021.39.15_SUPPL.12040.
  67. Gurwitz, J., Col, N., & Avorn, J., 1992. The exclusion of the elderly and women from clinical trials in acute myocardial infarction.. JAMA, 268 11, pp. 1417-22 . https://doi.org/10.1001/JAMA.1992.03490110055029.
  68. Dotan, E., 2017. Advancing Treatment Approach to the Older Patient with Cancer Through Clinical Trials Participation.. Surgical oncology clinics of North America, 26 4, pp. 719-728 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soc.2017.05.010.
  69. Al-Mansour, Z., Pang, L., & Bathini, V., 2018. Novel Cancer Therapeutics in Geriatrics: What is Unique to the Aging Patient?. Drugs & Aging, 36, pp. 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40266-018-0619-2.
  70. Mishra, M., Showalter, T., & Dicker, A., 2012. Biomarkers of aging and radiation therapy tailored to the elderly: future of the field.. Seminars in radiation oncology, 22 4, pp. 334-8 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semradonc.2012.05.010.

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  56. Restrepo, R., Álvarez, M., Wittnebel, L., Sorenson, H., Wettstein, R., Vines, D., Sikkema-Ortiz, J., Gardner, D., & Wilkins, R., 2008. Medication adherence issues in patients treated for COPD. International Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, 3, pp. 371 - 384. https://doi.org/10.2147/COPD.S3036.
  57. Campbell, N., Boustani, M., Skopelja, E., Gao, S., Unverzagt, F., & Murray, M. (2012). Medication adherence in older adults with cognitive impairment: a systematic evidence-based review.. The American journal of geriatric pharmacotherapy, 10 3, 165-77 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjopharm.2012.04.004.
  58. Blake, K., 2017. Improving adherence to asthma medications: current knowledge and future perspectives. Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine, 23, pp. 62–70. https://doi.org/10.1097/MCP.0000000000000334.
  59. O'Conor, R., Wolf, M., Smith, S., Martynenko, M., Vicencio, D., Sano, M., Wisnivesky, J., & Federman, A., 2015. Health literacy, cognitive function, proper use, and adherence to inhaled asthma controller medications among older adults with asthma.. Chest, 147 5, pp. 1307-1315 . https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.14-0914.
  60. Cowie, R., 2003. Written self-management plans improve asthma control.. Canadian respiratory journal, 10 3, pp. 157 . https://doi.org/10.1155/2003/653513.
  61. Powell, H., & Gibson, P., 2002. Options for self-management education for adults with asthma.. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 1, pp. CD004107 . https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004107.
  62. Marshall, T., Asperen, P., Selvadurai, H., & Robinson, P., 2013. Don't write off paediatric asthma action plans just yet. Primary Care Respiratory Journal: Journal of the General Practice Airways Group, 22, pp. 144 - 145. https://doi.org/10.4104/pcrj.2013.00049.
  63. Choi, J., & Kweon, Y., 2017. [Effects of Education about Action Plans according to Self-Monitoring on Self-Management Adherence, Knowledge, Symptom Control, and Quality of Life among Adult Asthma Patients: A Randomized Controlled Trial].. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 47 5, pp. 613-623 . https://doi.org/10.4040/jkan.2017.47.5.613.
  64. Turner, M., Taylor, D., Bennett, R., & Fitzgerald, J., 1998. A randomized trial comparing peak expiratory flow and symptom self-management plans for patients with asthma attending a primary care clinic.. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 157 2, pp. 540-6 . https://doi.org/10.1164/AJRCCM.157.2.9703060.
  65. Gibson, P., Coughlan, J., Wilson, A., Abramson, M., Bauman, A., Hensley, M., & Walters, E., 2000. Self-management education and regular practitioner review for adults with asthma.. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2, pp. CD001117 .
  66. Wu, B., Yang, Y., Tang, Y., Zheng, Y., Xie, M., Yang, K., & Wu, G., 2021. Characteristics of elderly-specific oncology trials registered in ClinicalTrials.gov.. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 39, pp. 12040-12040. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2021.39.15_SUPPL.12040.
  67. Gurwitz, J., Col, N., & Avorn, J., 1992. The exclusion of the elderly and women from clinical trials in acute myocardial infarction.. JAMA, 268 11, pp. 1417-22 . https://doi.org/10.1001/JAMA.1992.03490110055029.
  68. Dotan, E., 2017. Advancing Treatment Approach to the Older Patient with Cancer Through Clinical Trials Participation.. Surgical oncology clinics of North America, 26 4, pp. 719-728 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soc.2017.05.010.
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  70. Mishra, M., Showalter, T., & Dicker, A., 2012. Biomarkers of aging and radiation therapy tailored to the elderly: future of the field.. Seminars in radiation oncology, 22 4, pp. 334-8 . https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semradonc.2012.05.010.

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Priyash P. Ajmire
Corresponding author

Bachelor of Pharmacy Final year Student, Dr. Rajendra Gode Institute of Pharmacy, Amravati.

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Vaishnavi G. Mirchapure
Co-author

Bachelor of Pharmacy Final year Student, Dr. Rajendra Gode Institute of Pharmacy, Amravati.

Priyash P. Ajmire , Vaishnavi G. Mirchapure , Optimizing Asthma Care In The Elderly: A Guidelines-Based Therapeutic Approach For Enhanced Diagnosis And Management, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2024, Vol 2, Issue 8, 767-780. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13935672

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