A Review on Herbal Plant Treatments for Scorpion Bites

Abstract

In many tropical and subtropical areas, scorpion envenomation is a serious public health issue because it can cause serious medical problems and, in rare circumstances, even death. Despite their effectiveness, conventional antivenom treatments are not always available or reasonably priced, especially in remote and underdeveloped areas. Consequently, there is increasing interest in investigating alternative therapies made from medicinal plants that have historically been used to treat scorpion stings. In order to assess the effectiveness, modes of action, and phytochemical profiles of different herbal remedies used to treat scorpion bites, this review gathers and examines ethnobotanical knowledge in addition to scientific research. Plants with proven analgesic, anti-inflammatory, and venom-neutralizing qualities are highlighted. The review also identifies research gaps and suggests future research directions, such as the necessity of pharmacological validations and standardized clinical trials. This review attempts to support the development of easily accessible and efficient plant-based treatments for scorpion envenomation by bridging traditional knowledge with contemporary science.

Keywords

Introduction

In tropical and subtropical regions including Asia, Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East, scorpion stings pose a serious threat to public health. Over 1.2 million cases are recorded each year, with over 3,000 deaths occurring primarily in low-resource settings with inadequate access to prompt and appropriate medical care [1].  The current standard of care for severe scorpion envenomation is antivenom therapy. However, expensive prices, the need for cold storage, and inadequate delivery in rural or isolated areas sometimes limit its efficacy. Patient outcomes are further complicated by treatment delays and possible antivenom adverse responses [2]. The care of scorpion stings is therefore still heavily influenced by traditional medicinal systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and diverse indigenous tribal methods. Because medicinal plants have anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving, and venom-neutralizing properties, they are frequently used in these systems. In these societies, herbal medicines are typically more widely available, less expensive, and culturally integrated [3].  However, there is still little scientific proof for these natural remedies. Thorough toxicological and pharmacological studies are necessary to confirm their safety and effectiveness. The purpose of this paper is to give a thorough overview of the medicinal plants that have historically been used to treat scorpion bites and to pinpoint viable research topics.

3) Keywords:

Scorpion sting, Scorpion envenomation, Herbal medicine, Medicinal plants, Traditional medicine, Ethnobotany, Phytotherapy, Antivenom plants, Folk remedies, Indian traditional medicine.

4) Methodology

A thorough literature analysis that concentrated on the ethnobotanical, pharmacological, and toxicological aspects of medicinal plants used to treat scorpion stings was employed to perform this review. Tribal surveys, ethnomedicinal texts, and peer-reviewed publications were among the primary data sources. Relevant keyword combinations, such as "scorpion sting," "scorpion bite," "herbal treatment," "traditional medicine," "medicinal plants," "ethnobotany," and "antivenom plants," were used to search electronic resources including PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar, and Scopus. The search was restricted to English-language research and included publications up until March 2025.

4.1 Choosing Standards

The following inclusion criteria were used in the selection of studies: In vitro and in vivo experimental studies evaluating anti-venom, anti-inflammatory, or analgesic effects; articles providing phytochemical or pharmacological analysis of the plants involved; ethnobotanical surveys carried out in endemic regions with precise botanical identification; documentation of plant use in the traditional treatment of scorpion envenomation; and full text availability and relevance to the review objectives

4.2 Criteria for Exclusion

• Reports concentrating solely on synthetic antivenom;

• Articles unrelated to scorpion envenomation;

• Research without trustworthy taxonomic identification;

• Publications published in languages other than English or complete texts that are not available

4.3 Extraction and Analysis of Data Using a consistent form, data were extracted, documenting:

• Local and botanical names

•Plant material utilized, such as bark, latex, roots, and leaves

• The preparation technique (paste, poultice, decoction, juice, etc.)

• Application method (oral, topical, etc.)

• Ethnic group and region utilizing the treatment

• Identification of phytochemicals (if reported)

• Clinical or experimental verification of the plant extract Additionally, data was gathered from literature on traditional medicine including Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani, and it was verified by cross-referencing it with pharmacognostic databases such as The Wealth of India series and the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India [4,5].

4.4 Taxonomic Verification and Plant Authentication

The Plant List (http://www.theplantlist.org) was used to confirm the scientific names of the plants. Kew's Plants of the World Online and the International Plant Names Index (IPNI)

 This reduced mistakes from misidentification or synonyms and guaranteed uniformity in naming and categorization [6].

4.5 Evaluation of Quality Every study was assessed for:

• Study design (clinical, in vitro, in vivo, ethnobotanical survey);

 • Sample size and controls (if any);

• Reporting on significance and statistical analysis

• Peer review status and reproducibility

The assessment gave preference to studies having a solid scientific approach and reputation in ethnobotany [7].

5. Medicinal Plants for the Treatment of Scorpion Bite

Traditionally, several medicinal herbs have been used to treat scorpion sting symptoms. Depending on the local therapeutic system, these herbs can be utilized as poultices, decoctions, infusions, or pastes. Many of them are thought to have venom-neutralizing, analgesic, or anti-inflammatory qualities. A list of important medicinal plants is provided here, along with information on their historical use and current pharmacological support.

5.1 Neem, or Azadirachta indica

Ayurveda and traditional medicine both make extensive use of neem leaves. To lessen pain and inflammation, crushed leaves or their paste are applied directly to the stung site. Bioactive substances with anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, including nimbin and azadirachtin, are found in the plant [8].

5.2 Crown Flower, Calotropis gigantea

The sting site is promptly covered by Calotropis gigantea latex. India has long utilized this herb because of its possible ability to neutralize venom. However, because of its alleged toxicity, its latex should be utilized with caution as it contains strong alkaloids [9].

5.3 Kalmegh's  Andrographis paniculata
In traditional systems, A. paniculata is used topically and orally due to its potent anti-inflammatory and antipyretic qualities. One diterpenoid lactone that may contribute to venom inhibition is andrographolide, which is present in it [10].

5.4 Ocimum sanctum (Holy Basil/Tulsi) 

 The plant's essential oils have anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, and tulsi leaves are crushed and applied to the afflicted region or drunk as juice [11]. It is thought to have immunomodulatory and pain-relieving properties.

5.5 Vitex negundo, or chaste tree with five leaves

The sting is treated with a poultice made from the leaves. With its well-established anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antibacterial qualities, V. negundo has long been utilized in Ayurveda and traditional medicine [12].

5.6 False Daisy, or Eclipta prostrata

In Sri Lanka and southern India, Eclipta prostrata is frequently used to treat scorpion bites. The plant's anti-venom qualities may be attributed to the presence of ecliptine and wedelolactone [13].

5.7 Indian Birthwort (Aristolochia indica)

This plant has long been used to treat snake and scorpion bites since it is thought to neutralize poisons. However, because Aristolochia contains aristolochic acid, a recognized nephrotoxin and carcinogen, its usage is disputed [14].

5.8 Prickly Chaff Flower, Achyranthes aspera
In tribal medicine, the root paste of this plant is applied directly to the point of stinging. Preliminary pharmacological investigations have reported its anti-inflammatory and pain-relieving qualities [15]

6. Evidence Based on Ethnobotany

The identification of plant species used in traditional medicine to treat scorpion stings depends heavily on ethnobotanical expertise. In areas where scorpionism is common, this information has been passed down through the years and represents the rich cultural legacy and practical wisdom of indigenous and rural populations. More than 200 plant species have been used to cure scorpion stings, according to surveys done in South America, Africa, India, and portions of Southeast Asia [16]. Usually, these plants are given as herbal infusions, latex treatments, leaf pastes, or root decoctions. Certain plants are designated for this use in many indigenous societies, and traditional healers or medicine men are frequently the only ones who can use them [17].  For instance, in India, tribal communities in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, and Maharashtra mostly depend on medicinal plants including Vitex negundo, Aristolochia indica, and Calotropis gigantea to neutralize venom and relieve pain [18]. The Yoruba people of Nigeria have been known to follow similar customs, applying plants like garlic (Allium sativum) and Euphorbia hirta on scorpion sting wounds [19].
Additionally, ethnomedicinal investigations show that the variety of medicinal plants used for envenomation is correlated with biodiversity hotspots. Plant selection in these areas is influenced by local ecological knowledge and is based on seasonal availability, potency, and habitat [20]. While these traditional techniques offer useful insights, many of the claimed results are anecdotal and require empirical proof. Future pharmaceutical research is built upon ethnobotanical documentation, which promotes the methodical assessment of these treatments for efficacy, safety, and standardization.

7. Pharmacological Studies

Pharmacological studies of medicinal plants traditionally used for scorpion envenomation have shown a variety of bioactive compounds with anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and venom-neutralizing properties; however, the majority of these studies are still preliminary and are often limited to in vitro or animal models, but they open up avenues for drug discovery.

7.1 Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Activities

Plants like Vitex negundo, Ocimum sanctum, and Calotropis gigantea have shown significant anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties in experimental models. Ethanolic extracts of the leaves of V. negundo reduced carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats, supporting its traditional use for pain and inflammation in envenomation cases [21]. Similarly, the essential oils of O. sanctum were found to inhibit cyclooxygenase enzymes, contributing to its anti-inflammatory effect [22].

7.2 Antioxidant Effects and Venom Neutralization

Venom-neutralizing properties have been demonstrated by extracts from Andrographis paniculata and Eclipta prostrata. In one research, E. prostrata extract decreased oxidative stress in mice exposed with scorpion venom and suppressed the activity of phospholipase A2, a key component of scorpion venom [23]. By regulating oxidative indicators and maintaining liver histoarchitecture, A. paniculata has also been shown to reduce venom-induced hepatotoxicity [24].

7.3 Cytoprotective Effects and Enzyme Inhibition

Certain plants work by shielding biological components or blocking important venom enzymes. Azadirachta indica, for example, has been shown to suppress the activity of the enzymes hyaluronidase and protease in vitro, which cause tissue damage after scorpion stings [25]. Achyranthes aspera methanolic extracts demonstrated protection against venom-induced hemolysis and effects on membrane stability [26].

7.4 Restrictions and the Requirement for Clinical Studies

The majority of investigations are restricted to laboratory models, despite encouraging results. Few have advanced to the clinical trial stage, and problems with pharmacokinetics, toxicity profiles, and dose uniformity are still unsolved. Moreover, the development of phytotherapeutics into approved antivenom substitutes depends on bioavailability and compound isolation [27].

 8. Difficulties and Prospects for the Future

Herbal treatments for scorpion envenomation are widely used and ethnobotanically rich, but their acceptability in conventional medicine is hampered by a number of issues. These problems include standardization, conservation concerns, governmental barriers, and scientific validation.

8.1 Insufficient Scientific Validation and Standardization

 The lack of established procedures for the production, dosing, and administration of herbal treatments is a major drawback. The majority of customs are anecdotal and differ greatly according on the area, healer, and culture. It is challenging to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of these plant-based medicines in the absence of thorough scientific confirmation through in vitro, in vivo, and clinical trials [28].

8.2 Concerns Regarding Toxicology

Some plants, including Aristolochia indica, which have historically been used to treat scorpion stings, contain substances that are known to be carcinogenic or nephrotoxic. Human health is seriously at danger when such plants are used without toxicity profiling or dose control [29]. Before advocating broad usage, it is crucial to detect hazardous elements and establish safe therapeutic windows.

8.3 Preservation and Ecological Utilization

The viability of traditional treatment systems and biodiversity may be threatened by the overharvesting of medicinal plants brought on by rising demand. Uncontrolled harvesting of many of the plants utilized can result in habitat destruction and the extinction of species [30]. To guarantee long-term supply, conservation measures like as cultivation, community-based resource management, and legislative safeguards are required.

 8.4 Barriers to Integration and Regulation

Herbal medicine is now only partially included into traditional healthcare systems. Herbal medication regulations differ greatly between nations and are sometimes insufficiently formulated or badly implemented. Herbal antivenoms need to be as effective, pharmacovigilant, and quality controlled as traditional medications in order to be accepted [31].

8.5 Prospects for Further Research

Future studies should concentrate on the following areas:

 • Characterizing and isolating the active ingredients that provide antivenom its effects.

• Performing controlled clinical studies to assess the safety and effectiveness of potential candidates.

• Creating standardized formulas with doses that have been verified.

• Investigating potential synergistic effects of traditional antivenoms and plant extracts.

• Using biotechnological methods to comprehend mechanisms of action, such as molecular docking and metabolomics [32].

9) CONCLUSION:

 In areas without access to antivenom, herbal therapy is a potential alternative for treating scorpion stings. The usage of many plant species with venom-neutralizing and anti-inflammatory qualities is supported by ethnobotanical data. To safely and successfully incorporate these treatments into mainstream healthcare, further research is needed, particularly in the areas of clinical validation and standardization.

10) ACKNOWLEGEMENT:

The authors gratefully acknowledge the valuable support and resources that significantly contributed to the successful completion of this review. We sincerely thank our mentors and colleagues for their thoughtful guidance and continuous encouragement throughout the preparation of this manuscript. We also appreciate the timely assistance provided by the library and laboratory staff in accessing crucial literature and technical information.

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