Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis in The Spotlight: A Critical Review on The Bioactivity and Drug Development Potential of Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis

Abstract

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn., a globally distributed medicinal plant of the Malvaceae family, has gained prominence in ethnopharmacology and modern phytotherapy due to its extensive therapeutic applications and diverse phytochemical profile. This critical review synthesizes multidisciplinary research on the pharmacognostic characteristics, traditional usage, phytoconstituents, and pharmacological activities of H. rosa-sinensis, with a particular focus on flowers, leaves, and roots. The plant demonstrates significant antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anticancer, cardioprotective, and antifertility properties, largely attributed to flavonoids, anthocyanins, phenolic acids, and triterpenoids. Additionally, emerging data reveal its neuropharmacological and antiviral potentials, including in silico inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 protease. The review highlights standardized extraction methods, mechanistic insights, and safety profiles, while identifying gaps in clinical validation and genotoxic assessments. Collectively, H. rosa-sinensis presents a promising lead for phytopharmaceutical development, warranting further translational and clinical investigations.

Keywords

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis; phytoconstituents; ethnomedicine; antioxidant; antimicrobial; anticancer; anti-inflammatory; antifertility; cardioprotective; phytotherapy; drug discovery

Introduction

Table- 1: Botanical and Taxonomical Classification of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn

Kingdom	Plantae
Subkingdom	Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)
Division	Magnoliophyta (Flowering plants)
Class	Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Order	Malvales
Family	Malvaceae (Mallow family)
Genus	Hibiscus
Species	Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.

3. History and Ethnobotanical Context

3.1 Use in Ayurveda, Chinese Medicine, and Other Traditional Systems

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, known as “Japa Pushpa” in Ayurveda and “Gurhal” in Unani, has been traditionally employed across multiple medical systems. In Ayurveda, it is used to manage hair loss, premature graying, skin inflammation, and bleeding disorders, attributed to its cooling and emollient properties that pacify Pitta dosha^[8]. Unani medicine describes it as “cold and dry,” utilized as a refrigerant, laxative, and aphrodisiac in treating gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, and reproductive ailments^[8]. Traditional Chinese Medicine applies it to clear heat and toxins, addressing sore throat, dysentery, and hypertension^[12].

3.2 Regional Folk Uses

In Indian ethnomedicine, the plant is applied for joint pain, cough, fever, and menstrual irregularities. For instance, in Karnataka, leaf paste is used to alleviate sprains and muscular discomfort ^[9]. In African traditions, hibiscus oil aids in treating sunburn and wounds, while in Caribbean cultures, hibiscus tea is consumed to reduce body heat and promote cardiovascular function ^[12].

3.3 Parts Used

Various plant parts—flowers, leaves, and roots—are used therapeutically. Flowers are primarily applied in hair care, as emollients, and for managing hypertension^?10,11?. Leaves exhibit antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties and are often used in poultices and decoctions^[10,12]. Roots serve as expectorants and digestive aids, with both flowers and leaves incorporated in Unani formulations for circulatory and reproductive health^[8].

3.4 Preparation Methods

Preparation techniques vary by tradition:

• Decoctions are commonly used for fever, hypertension, and gastrointestinal complaints^[8,12].
• Leaf pastes are applied topically for boils, sprains, and joint pain^[9,10].
• Infused flower oils function as Ayurvedic hair tonics.
• Tisanes made from dried petals are consumed for their cooling and mild diuretic properties ^[12].

4. Phytochemical Composition

4.1 Major Classes of Compounds

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis is rich in secondary metabolites such as flavonoids, anthocyanins, alkaloids, tannins, saponins, terpenoids, phenols, and quinones, which are associated with its antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory effects^[13]. Petals are particularly abundant in flavonoids and anthocyanins, while phenols and quinones are concentrated in the flowers. Steroids and cardiac glycosides are occasionally detected in leaves and bark^[15].

4.2 Key Bioactive Compounds

Notable constituents include flavonoids (quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, luteolin-7-glucoside, apigenin-hexuronide, catechin, epicatechin) and anthocyanins (cyanidin-3-glucoside, cyanidin-sambubioside, cyanidin-sophoroside), primarily in glycosidic forms Additional potent antioxidants such as hibiscetin-3-glucoside, quercetin-trihexoside, taxifolin-dihexoside, and quercetin-sophoroside have also been identified . Flavonoid profiles vary with flower color, with red cultivars rich in anthocyanins and white/yellow types higher in flavonols^[14].

4.3 Extraction Methods and Solvents

Extraction techniques depend on target compound polarity and desired yield. Ethanol-based Soxhlet extraction (60?°C, 48?h) is effective for isolating flavonoids^[16]. while aqueous maceration is commonly used for bioactivity screening^[15]. Hydroethanolic extraction coupled with UHPLC-ESI?-Orbitrap-MS has enabled identification of 20 flavonoids across 16 cultivars^[14]. Modern methods such as ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted, and supercritical fluid extraction improve efficiency and reduce solvent use . Ethanol, methanol, and water are commonly used solvents; acidified solvents enhance anthocyanin recovery, and 50–80% aqueous ethanol is optimal for flavonoid extraction ^17].

5. Pharmacological Activities:

5.1 Antioxidant Activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis demonstrates strong antioxidant activity, primarily attributed to its flavonoids, phenolics, and proanthocyanidins, especially in flowers and leaves. Methanolic and ethanolic flower extracts exhibited high total phenolic (61.45?±?3.23 and 59.31?±?4.31?mg/100?g GAE) and flavonoid contents (53.28?±?1.93 and 32.25?±?1.21?mg/100?g CE), with DPPH scavenging activities of 75.46% and 64.98%, respectively^[18].Garg et al. reported superior antioxidant efficacy of methanolic stem and leaf extracts using DPPH, NO, H?O? scavenging, and FRAP assays, correlating with higher phenolic content^[19]. Verma et al. observed potent DPPH radical inhibition with an IC?? of 19.54?μg/mL in flower extracts, confirming strong free radical neutralization^[20]. Sheth et al. compared four cultivars, noting the red variant had the highest antioxidant effect (55.11% DPPH inhibition at 100?μg/mL), closely approximating ascorbic acid (56.38% at 5?μg/mL). Differences were linked to phenolic and flavonoid variability among cultivars^[21]. Overall, H. rosa-sinensis possesses robust antioxidant potential, modulated by plant part, cultivar, and extraction method, supporting its traditional applications and potential in oxidative stress-related disorders.

5.2 Antimicrobial Activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

The antimicrobial properties of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis have been well-documented, supporting its traditional use in treating infections. Various studies have highlighted its efficacy against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, as well as fungi, across different extracts.  A methanolic extract combining H. rosa-sinensis flowers, Aloe vera, and Coleus blumei exhibited significant antibacterial activity, with the highest inhibition observed against Klebsiella pneumoniae (22.33 mm) and Escherichia coli (16 mm) at 500 mg/mL. Additionally, it showed antifungal activity against Candida albicans (13.66 mm)^[22]. In a bioprospecting study, both aqueous and ethanol extracts of H. rosa-sinensis leaves displayed antimicrobial activity against various soil microbes, including Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas, and fungal species like Aspergillus niger. Ethanol extracts were particularly effective due to better solubility of active compounds, such as flavonoids and tannins^[23]. A study on the ethanol and ethyl acetate fractions of H. rosa-sinensis flowers demonstrated strong bacteriostatic activity against clinical and antibiotic-resistant strains of Helicobacter pylori. The ethyl acetate fraction showed MICs of 0.2–0.25 mg/mL and MBCs of 1.25–1.5 mg/mL, inhibiting biofilm formation and reducing urease activity without cytotoxicity to human cells^[24]. Recent research on methanolic flower extracts reported large zones of inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus (36 mm), Micrococcus luteus (45 mm), E. coli (45 mm), and K. pneumoniae (40 mm), with MICs ranging from 0.5–1 mg/mL. The extract also significantly inhibited biofilm formation (up to 47.6% for M. luteus) and caused notable morphological changes in bacterial cells^[25]. The antimicrobial effects of H. rosa-sinensis are attributed to its diverse phytochemical composition, including flavonoids, tannins, phenolic acids, anthocyanins, and volatile compounds. These compounds likely disrupt microbial membranes, inhibit enzymes, and interfere with quorum sensing, highlighting the plant's potential for natural antimicrobial drug development ^[23,25].

5.3 Anti-inflammatory Activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis demonstrates notable anti-inflammatory effects, attributed to flavonoids, anthocyanins, and polyphenols. In vitro studies showed that ethanolic leaf extract protected red blood cells from hypotonic-induced hemolysis (91.09% protection) and protein denaturation (89.45% inhibition), comparable to diclofenac sodium^[26]. The ethyl acetate flower extract also inhibited RBC lysis by 90% at 100 µg/mL^[27]. In vivo studies confirmed the plant’s anti-inflammatory action in carrageenan-induced paw edema and formaldehyde-induced arthritis models, with doses of 250–1000 mg/kg reducing inflammation and normalizing biomarkers^[28]. Additionally, the extract reduced granuloma mass and edema in xylene-induced ear and cotton pellet models^[29]. The mechanisms involve COX and LOX pathway inhibition, reduced histamine and prostaglandin synthesis, and suppression of neutrophil migration, with flavonoids like quercetin and cyanidin playing key roles^[27,28]. These findings support H. rosa-sinensis as a candidate for further investigation in anti-inflammatory drug development.

5.4 Anticancer Activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis has demonstrated significant anticancer potential through cytotoxic, antioxidant, and pro-apoptotic effects in various human cancer cell lines. The plant’s pharmacological efficacy is attributed to its rich phytochemical profile, including flavonoids, phenolics, triterpenoids, and saponins, which influence redox balance, apoptosis, and mitochondrial integrity. Arullappan et al. reported that methanolic leaf extract exhibited the highest cytotoxicity against K-562 chronic myeloid leukemia cells (IC?? = 30.9 ± 1.1 µg/mL), with minimal toxicity to normal cells^[30]. Nguyen et al. found that aqueous flower extract induced mitochondrial depolarization and elevated ROS levels in both estrogen receptor-positive (MCF-7) and triple-negative (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells, enhancing the effects of chemotherapeutic agents^[34]. Harini et al. demonstrated that ethanolic and aqueous extracts showed dose-dependent anticancer activity, with ethanolic extracts showing superior inhibition of cell proliferation^[33]. Alam et al. identified triterpenoids such as ursolic acid and β-sitosterol in H. rosa-sinensis, which exhibited cytotoxicity against HepG2 and MCF-7 cells^[32]. Mandade et al. linked the plant’s antioxidant capacity to its anticancer potential, as it inhibited free radicals and lipid peroxidation^[31]. Overall, H. rosa-sinensis exhibits anticancer activity via multiple mechanisms, including ROS-mediated apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and synergistic effects with chemotherapeutic agents. Its bioactive compounds offer promise for further development in cancer therapy.

5.5 Antifertility Activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

The antifertility potential of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis has been extensively studied in male and female animal models. Various plant parts, such as roots, flowers, and leaves, have demonstrated reversible effects on reproductive functions, including spermatogenesis, sperm motility, hormonal regulation, and implantation.

Male Reproductive Effects

Gupta and Yadav evaluated the effects of aqueous, ethanol, and benzene leaf extracts of H. rosa-sinensis in male albino mice over 35 days. The benzene extract notably reduced testis weight, induced severe histopathological changes in seminiferous tubules, and decreased sperm count, motility, and viability, without affecting libido. Although fertility rates dropped significantly, no systemic toxicity was observed, as liver and kidney histology and haematological indices remained unchanged, indicating selective action on reproductive organs ^[35]. Carolin et al. investigated the impact of methanolic flower extract on male rat reproductive tissues over 30 days. At higher doses (400 and 500 mg/kg), the extract caused significant reductions in the weight of the epididymis, prostate, and seminal vesicles, alongside thinning of the cauda epididymal epithelium. These changes suggest that hibiscus flower extract exerts antifertility effects via androgen-dependent organ atrophy and disruption of sperm maturation ^[36]. Al-Saily et al. compared the antifertility effects of a phenolic extract of H. rosa-sinensis flowers with cyproterone acetate (CPA) in male albino rats. Hibiscus extract (300 mg/kg for 60 days) significantly reduced sperm concentration, motility, and viability, while increasing morphological abnormalities. Although less potent than CPA, it delayed successful mating, with pregnancies occurring five weeks after treatment cessation, suggesting a prolonged antifertility effect. Additionally, the extract altered gonadotropin (FSH, LH) and testosterone levels, indicating endocrine disruption as a potential mechanism ^[37]

Female Reproductive Effects

Vasudeva and Sharma studied the ethanolic root extract of H. rosa-sinensis for post-coital antifertility and estrogenic activity in female rats. Oral administration of 400 mg/kg extract resulted in 100% anti-implantation activity without toxicity. The extract also exhibited uterotropic effects, increasing uterine weight and endometrial thickness, comparable to ethinyl estradiol, highlighting its estrogenic and anti-nidatory actions ^[38]. These studies collectively demonstrate that H. rosa-sinensis possesses multi-mechanistic antifertility effects through both anti-spermatogenic and anti-implantation pathways. Its reversible, non-toxic profile positions it as a promising candidate for plant-based contraceptive development for both sexes.

5.6 Antidiabetic Activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (HRS) exhibits significant antidiabetic effects through mechanisms including pancreatic β-cell regeneration, blood glucose reduction, lipid profile improvement, and anti-inflammatory actions. Both aqueous and ethanolic extracts from its flowers and leaves have shown hypoglycemic potential in animal models.

Pancreatic β-Cell Regeneration

Chauhan and Rani reported that the ethanolic flower extract (125 mg/kg) in STZ-induced diabetic rats reduced fasting glucose and restored body weight, with histopathological evidence of pancreatic islet regeneration, indicating β-cell protection ^[42].

Hepatoprotective and Nephroprotective Effects

Zaki et al. found that the aqueous methanolic leaf extract (400 mg/kg) reduced glucose, cholesterol, liver enzymes, and improved antioxidant levels, offering hepatoprotective and nephroprotective effects by mitigating organ damage. Key phytochemicals, orientin and verbascoside, contributed to these benefits ^[44].

Effects in Diabetic Pregnancies

Afiune et al. demonstrated that the flower extract improved maternal glycemia and fetal weight in STZ-induced diabetic pregnant rats, but noted potential reproductive risks in non-diabetic animals, suggesting caution in its use during pregnancy ^[40].

5.7 Anti-Inflammatory and Hypoglycaemic Effects

Oluwamodupe et al. reported that the aqueous flower extract downregulated inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) and reduced fasting glucose, indicating immunomodulatory and hypoglycemic actions via the JAK/STAT pathway ^[39].

α-Amylase Inhibition

Harini et al. confirmed that H. rosa-sinensis extract inhibited α-amylase activity in vitro, with effects comparable to metformin, supported by flavonoids, tannins, and saponins ^[41].

Red Hibiscus Flower Tea

Sanadheera et al. reviewed red H. rosa-sinensis flower tea, suggesting it may offer antihyperglycemic benefits, though further human studies are needed for confirmation ^[43]. H. rosa-sinensis shows promise as a complementary antidiabetic agent, with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and β-cell restorative properties. Further clinical validation is required.

5.8 Cardioprotective Activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis demonstrates cardioprotective effects, particularly against oxidative damage in myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, primarily through enhancing antioxidant defenses and modulating lipid peroxidation.

Antioxidant Effects in Myocardial Infarction

Gauthaman et al. studied the effect of H. rosa-sinensis flower powder in isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction in rats. Chronic administration (125, 250, and 500 mg/kg for 4 weeks) significantly increased antioxidant enzymes (SOD, catalase, GSH) and reduced lipid peroxidation markers (TBARS), with the 250 mg/kg dose offering the most protection, preserving myocardial structure and mitigating reperfusion damage ^[45,46].

Angiogenic Effects

Sharma et al. observed that H. rosa-sinensis flower extract induced dose-dependent neovascularization in the chick chorioallantoic membrane model, suggesting its potential in promoting vascular regeneration for myocardial recovery ^[47]. H. rosa-sinensis provides cardioprotection through antioxidant enhancement and angiogenesis, supporting its potential as a therapeutic agent in ischemic heart conditions.

6. Mechanisms of Action

6.1 Antimicrobial and Neurological Mechanisms

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis demonstrates antibacterial activity through urease inhibition, biofilm disruption, and morphological interference in Helicobacter pylori, impeding its colonization and viability^[48]. Methanolic root extracts exhibit CNS depressant, anxiolytic, analgesic, and antipsychotic effects, likely via modulation of GABAergic, serotonergic, and dopaminergic systems^[50].

6.2 Pharmacological Pathways

The plant enhances GABAergic signalling, as shown by prolonged pentobarbital-induced sleep and reduced locomotion . Serotonin pathway involvement is indicated by suppression of lithium-induced head twitches, while dopaminergic antagonism is evidenced by increased catalepsy with haloperidol^[50]. Phenolic compounds such as naringenin, luteolin, and myricetin contribute to anti  microbial effects by binding and inhibiting urease^[48].

6.3 Molecular Targets

In silico analyses identified cyanidin-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside, rutin, and hibiscetin-3-glucoside as potent inhibitors of SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro, binding key residues (His-41, Cys-145) within the catalytic site^[49]. Urease enzymes serve as primary bacterial targets, supporting non-antibiotic antimicrobial strategies^[48].

6.4 Dose-Response Relationships

Methanolic root extract administered intraperitoneally (50–200?mg/kg) elicited dose-dependent CNS effects, including sedation, anxiolysis, and antipsychotic behaviors in animal models^[50]. Ethyl acetate fractions demonstrated minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 0.2–0.25?mg/mL and minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of 1.25–1.5?mg/mL against H. pylori, achieving bactericidal activity within 36 hours at 1.5?mg/mL^[48].

7. Toxicology and Safety Profile

7.1 Acute and Chronic Toxicity

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis demonstrates a wide safety margin in acute toxicity studies. Methanolic extracts of leaves and stem bark caused no mortality in rodents at oral doses up to 2000 mg/kg and 5000 mg/kg, respectively, with LD?? values beyond these limits^[52,53]. Similarly, ethanolic leaf extracts administered at 2000 mg/kg over 14 days showed no toxic effect^[51]Sub-acute evaluations at 400 mg/kg (methanolic extract) revealed no adverse haematological or organ-specific changes over 14 days. However, hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity were observed at 800 mg/kg, indicated by elevated AST, ALT, bilirubin, and renal function markers, alongside histopathological damage ^[53]. Repeated dosing of ethanolic extract at 200 mg/kg remained non-toxic.

7.2 Genotoxicity and Mutagenicity

Current literature lacks comprehensive genotoxicity or mutagenicity evaluations, such as Ames or micronucleus assays, underscoring the need for further investigation in this area.

7.3 Reported Side Effects and Contraindications

Extracts up to 400 mg/kg are generally well tolerated without observable side effects^[51] However, doses at or above 800 mg/kg pose risks of hepatic and renal toxicity. While no formal contraindications are reported, the plant’s antifertility effects suggest caution in individuals of reproductive age.

8. Future Perspectives

8.1 Potential for Drug Discovery

The diverse phytoconstituents of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, particularly flavonoids, anthocyanins, and triterpenoids, present promising leads for drug development. Computational studies have highlighted compounds like cyanidin-3-sophoroside-5-glucoside and rutin as potent SARS-CoV-2 3CLpro inhibitors, exhibiting superior binding affinity compared to remdesivir ^[55]. Its known antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-lowering activities further position it as a candidate for managing metabolic and infectious disorders ^[54,56].

8.2 Areas Requiring Further Investigation

Despite extensive preclinical data, clinical validation remains limited. There is a need for standardized extract formulations and comprehensive toxicological assessments, including chronic, reproductive, and genotoxicity studies. Mechanistic exploration beyond known targets such as ACE inhibition is also warranted to better define therapeutic pathways ^[54,56].

8.3 Suggestions for Clinical Trials

Preliminary evidence suggests that daily intake of 2?g flower powder improves glycemic and lipid parameters in type 2 diabetes, indicating both efficacy and safety ^[54]. Future clinical studies should adopt standardized dosing, define metabolic and inflammatory endpoints, and incorporate safety assessments (hepatic, renal) to support translational application ^[55-57].

CONCLUSION

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis exhibits a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antifertility, cardioprotective, neuroprotective, and anticancer effects. These bioactivities are largely attributed to its rich phytochemical profile, encompassing flavonoids, anthocyanins, phenolic acids, and triterpenoids. Preclinical studies have substantiated its therapeutic potential through multiple mechanisms—ranging from modulation of oxidative stress and inflammatory pathways to hormone regulation and microbial inhibition. Despite promising results, clinical validation remains limited. Standardized extract development, mechanistic elucidation, and well-designed clinical trials are essential to translate this ethnomedicinal plant into evidence-based phytotherapeutics. Its safety profile appears favorable within certain dosage ranges, though long-term and reproductive toxicity require further investigation. Collectively, H. rosa-sinensis stands as a promising candidate for integrated phytomedicine and future drug discovery.

REFERENCES

1. Bala R, Kaur R, Kaur B, Kaur P. Hibiscus Rosa Sinensis Linn.: A phytochemical and pharmacological review. International Journal of Health Sciences. 2022;6:5165-93.
2. Sivaraman CM, Saju F. Medicinal value of Hibiscus rosa sinensis: a review. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Chemistry. 2021 Feb 10:1-1.
3. Jasiem TM, Nasser NM, Baderden SK, Hasan HA. Pharmacognostical and phytochemical studies of Iraqi Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. InAIP Conference proceedings 2019 Aug 22 (Vol. 2144, No. 1). AIP Publishing.
4. Iqbal A, Rehman MZ. Determining Genetic Variability and Taxonomy of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis through rbcL Molecular Marker: Genetic Variability and Taxonomy of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. Pakistan BioMedical Journal. 2023 Jun 30:29-36.
5. Abdelfattah HM, Hussein HA, Teleb SS, El-Demerdash MM, George NM. Chemotaxonomy compared to morphological and anatomical taxonomy of five Hibiscus species. Journal of Plant Research. 2024 Nov;137(6):967-84.
6. Govindarajan N, Sundharamoorthy S, Kannan N, Raju I. Macro-Microscopic Identification of Dried Flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. and its Differentiation from Adulterant Rhododendron arboreum Sm. Pharmacognosy Journal. 2019;11(3).
7. Salamah A. Variations in the morphology of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis crested peach flowers in nature. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2021 (Vol. 1725, No. 1, p. 012039). IOP Publishing.
8. Kalam MA, Jalal B, Zahoor U, Ahmed A. Gurhal (Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis): Medicinal Importance in Perspective of Unani Medicine and Pharmacological Studies.
9. Anadka Y, Gulimane K. Ethnobotanical investigation on herbal remedies for musculoskeletal disorders in Dakshina Kannada district, Karnataka, India. Ethnobotany Research and Applications. 2024 May 22; 29:1-48.
10. Upadhyay S, Upadhyay P. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis: pharmacological review. International Journal of Research in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences. 2011;2(4):1449-50.
11. Munir N, Khilji SA, Rasool S, Khalil A, Sajid ZA. Phytochemical Analysis, Antibacterial, and Antitumor Potential of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. Scientifica. 2025;2025(1):2722306.
12. Bansode A, Bhosle S, Borde R, Rukhsar S, Kulkarni K, Shaikh A. A Comprehensive Literature Review and Evaluation of Essential Oil of Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis.
13. Anil Kumar AK, Ashatha Singh AS. Review on Hibiscus rosa sinensis.
14. Mejía JJ, Sierra LJ, Ceballos JG, Martínez JR, Stashenko EE. Color, antioxidant capacity and flavonoid composition in Hibiscus rosa-sinensis cultivars. Molecules. 2023 Feb 13;28(4):1779.
15. Abate TA, Belay AN. Assessment of antibacterial and antioxidant activity of aqueous crude flower, leaf, and bark extracts of Ethiopian Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn: geographical effects and Co2Res2/Glassy carbon electrode. International Journal of Food Properties. 2022 Dec 31;25(1):1875-89.
16. Dhanusmita SD, Tiwari SB. A Comparative Phytochemical and Anxiolytic Screening of Ethanolic Extracts of Leaves and Flowers of Hibiscus Rosa Sinensis Linn. In Mice.
17. Hapsari BW, Setyaningsih W. Methodologies in the analysis of phenolic compounds in roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.): Composition, biological activity, and beneficial effects on human health. Horticulturae. 2021 Feb 23;7(2):35.
18. Khan ZA, Naqvi SA, Mukhtar A, Hussain Z, Shahzad SA, Mansha A, Ahmad M, Zahoor AF, Bukhari IH, Janjua MR, Mahmood N. Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis Linn flower extracts. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2014 May 1;27(3):469-74.
19. Garg D, Shaikh A, Muley A, Marar T. In-vitro antioxidant activity and phytochemical analysis in extracts of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis stem and leaves. Free Radicals and Antioxidants. 2012 Jul 1;2(3):41-6.
20. Singh S, Gupta A, Kumari A, Verma R. Antimicrobial and antioxidant potential of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. in western himalaya. InBiological Forum–An International Journal 2019 (Vol. 11, pp. 35-40).
21. Sheth F, De S. Evaluation of comparative antioxidant potential of four cultivars of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. by HPLC-DPPH method. Free Radicals and Antioxidants. 2012 Oct 1;2(4):73-8.
22. Mohd Amin NA, Md Yasin IM. Antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of mixed methanol extract of Aloe Vera, Hibiscus flower and Ati-Ati leaves. Journal of Academia. 2023;11:1-0.
23. Prasanna R. Bioprospecting of Hibiscus Rosasinensis for Antimicrobial Activity against Soil Microbes. Inter J of Adv Res, Ideas & Innov in Tech. 2017;3(1):1-4.
24. Ngan LT, Tan MT, Hoang NV, Thanh DT, Linh NT, Hoa TT, Nuong NT, Hieu TT. Antibacterial activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. red flower against antibiotic-resistant strains of Helicobacter pylori and identification of the flower constituents. Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 2021 May 17;54(7):e10889.
25. Hagaggi NS, Abdul-Raouf UM, Khalil D. Antimicrobial and Antibiofilm Potentials of Methanolic Extract from Cultivated Tropical Hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa sinensis L.) Flower. Egyptian Academic Journal of Biological Sciences, G. Microbiology. 2025 Apr 24;17(1):109-20.
26. Sruthi T, Rao CK, Michael RZ, Nissy SM, Prakash DS. In-vitro anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity of ethanolic extract of Hibiscus rosa sinensis leaves. Rasayan Journal of Chemistry. 2021 Oct 1;14(4).
27. Hema K, Rani SV, Kumar GP. In-Vitro Anti-Inflammatory Studies of Flavonoids from Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis Linn. Oriental Journal Of Chemistry. 2022;38(1):207.
28. Verma P, Sharma S, Kumar V, Chaudhary H. Anti-inflammatory effect of hydroalcoholic extract of hibiscus rosa on acute and chronic inflammation. Int J Pharmacol Toxicol. 2016;4(2):123-26.
29. Birari RB, Jalapure SS, Changrani SR, Shid SL, Tote MV, Habade BM. Antiinflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic effect of Hibiscus rosa sinesis Linn flower. Pharmacology online. 2009;3:737-47.
30. Arullappan S, Muhamad S, Zakaria Z. Cytotoxic activity of the leaf and stem extracts of Hibiscus rosa sinensis (Malvaceae) against leukaemic cell line (K-562). Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2013 Oct 29;12(5):743-6.
31. Mandade R, Sreenivas SA, Sakarkar DM, Choudhury A. Radical scavenging and antioxidant activity of Hibiscus rosasinensis extract. Afr. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2011 Nov 8;5(17):2027-34.
32. Alam P, Al-Yousef HM, Siddiqui NA, Alhowiriny TA, Alqasoumi SI, Amina M, Hassan WH, Abdelaziz S, Abdalla RH. Anticancer activity and concurrent analysis of ursolic acid, β-sitosterol and lupeol in three different Hibiscus species (aerial parts) by validated HPTLC method. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. 2018 Nov 1;26(7):1060-7.
33. Harini VS. Evaluation of the anticancer, antidiabetic, and in vitro wound healing properties of the aqueous and ethanolic extract of Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. J Pharm Bioall Sci. 2024;16(Suppl 2):S1217–22.
34. Nguyen C, Baskaran K, Pupulin A, Ruvinov I, Zaitoon O, Grewal S, Scaria B, Mehaidli A, Vegh C, Pandey S. Hibiscus flower extract selectively induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells and positively interacts with common chemotherapeutics. BMC complementary and alternative medicine. 2019 Dec;19:1-4.
35. Gupta PC, Yadav L. Effect of Hibiscus-Rosa-Sinensis (Linn.) on the Reproductive Endpoints and Fertility in Male Albino Mice.
36. Carolin BT, Novelia S, Nita S. Effects of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. flower extract on epididymis, prostate and seminal vesicles of male rats. International Biological and Biomedical Journal. 2019 Apr 10;5(1):12-7.
37. Al-Saily HM, Al-Hady FN, Al-Halbosiy MM. The anti-fertility and cytotoxicity effects of cyproterone acetate and phenolic extract of Hibiscusrosa Sinensis linn flowers in male albino rats. Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development. 2018;9(7):177-81.
38. Vasudeva N, Sharma SK. Post?Coital Antifertility Activity of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. Roots. Evidence?Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2008;5(1):91-4.
39. Oluwamodupe C, Adeleye AO, Babalola OO, Ottu PO. Investigation of proinflammatory genes expression in STZ-induced diabetic rats treated with extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis flower.
40. Afiune LA, Leal-Silva T, Sinzato YK, Moraes-Souza RQ, Soares TS, Campos KE, Fujiwara RT, Herrera E, Damasceno DC, Volpato GT. Beneficial effects of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. flower aqueous extract in pregnant rats with diabetes. PLoS One. 2017 Jun 23;12(6):e0179785.
41. Harini VS. Evaluation of the Anticancer, Antidiabetic, and In vitro Wound Healing Properties of the Aqueous and Ethanolic Extract of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Journal of Pharmacy and Bioallied Sciences. 2024 Apr 1;16(Suppl 2):S1217-22.
42. Chauhan K, Rani S. Evaluation of antidiabetic potential of Hibiscus rosa sinensis on streptozotocin-induced diabetes on Wistar albino rats. Journal of Applied & Natural Science. 2024 Mar 1;16(1).
43. Sanadheera S, Subasinghe D, Solangaarachchi MN, Suraweera M, Suraweera NY, Tharangika N. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.(red Hibiscus) Tea, Can It Be Used as A Home-Remedy to Control Diabetes and Hypercholesterolemia?. Biology, Medicine, & Natural Product Chemistry. 2021 Jul 27;10(1):59-65.
44. Sankaran M, Vadivel A. Antioxidant and antidiabetic effect of hibiscus rosasinensis flower extract on streptozotocin induced experimental rats-a dose response study. Notulae Scientia Biologicae. 2011 Nov 17;3(4):13-21.
45. Gauthaman KK, Saleem MT, Thanislas PT, Prabhu VV, Krishnamoorthy KK, Devaraj NS, Somasundaram JS. Cardioprotective effect of the Hibiscus rosa sinensis flowers in an oxidative stress model of myocardial ischemic reperfusion injury in rat. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2006 Dec;6:1-8.
46. Gauthaman KK, Saleem MT, Thanislas PT, Prabhu VV, Krishnamoorthy KK, Devaraj NS, Somasundaram JS. Cardioprotective effect of the Hibiscus rosa sinensis flowers in an oxidative stress model of myocardial ischemic reperfusion injury in rat. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2006 Dec;6:1-8.
47. Sharma S, Kota K, Pandya ND. A study of angiogenic activity of" Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn." using chick chorioallantoic membrane model. National Journal of Physiology, Pharmacy and Pharmacology. 2021;11(10):1080-4.
48. Trung HT, Huynh HT, Thuy LN, Van Minh HN, Nguyen MN, Thi MN. Growth-inhibiting, bactericidal, antibiofilm, and urease inhibitory activities of Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. flower constituents toward antibiotic sensitive-and resistant-strains of Helicobacter pylori. ACS omega. 2020 Aug 7;5(32):20080.
49. Das S, Satapathy S, Acharya D, Sahu SK. Identification of novel phytochemicals from Hibiscus rosa sinensis flower as a prospective inhibitor targeting the 3CLpro enzyme of SARS-CoV-2 using computational approaches.
50. Nade VS, Kawale LA, Dwivedi S, Yadav AV. Neuropharmacological evaluation of Hibiscus rosa sinensis roots in experimental animals. Journal of Natural Remedies. 2009 Jun 1:142-51.
51. Mondal S, Ghosh D, Sagar N, Ganapaty S. Evaluation of Antioxidant, Toxicological and Wound Healing Properties of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. Leaves Extract on Experimental Animal Models. Indian J Pharm Educ Res. 2016;50(4):620–627. doi:10.5530/ijper.50.4.15
52. Umar HB, Abdulkadir S, Ibrahim B, Ibrahim H. Phytochemical Screening, Acute Toxicity and Antibacterial Activity of Methanolic Stem Bark Extract of Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis.
53. Nath P, Yadav AK. Acute and sub-acute oral toxicity assessment of the methanolic extract from leaves of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. in mice. Journal of intercultural ethnopharmacology. 2014 Nov 28;4(1):70.
54. Solangaarachchi M, Subasinghe D, Suraweera M, Suraweera N, Dilshani N, Senadheera S. Home-made Hibiscus rosasinensis tea on post-prandial blood glucose level and blood pressure: An interventional study. Anuradhapura Medical Journal. 2022 Jul 15;16(2).
55. Khan A, Heng W, Wang Y, Qiu J, Wei X, Peng S, Saleem S, Khan M, Ali SS, Wei DQ. In silico and in vitro evaluation of kaempferol as a potential inhibitor of the SARS?CoV?2 main protease (3CLpro). Phytotherapy Research. 2021 Jan 15;35(6):2841.
56. Khan IM, Rahman R, Mushtaq A, Rezgui M. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L.(Malvaceae): Distribution, chemistry and uses. International Journal of Chemical and Biochemical Sciences. 2017;12:147-51.
57. Sarje SK, Narwade S, Thakur M, Ghiware NB. Pharmacognostic and Pharmacological review on herbal plant: Hibiscus rosa sinensis Linn. International Journal of ChemTech Research. 2019;12(04):266-70.