Columbia Institute of Pharmacy, Tekari, Near Vidhansabha Road, Raipur-493111, Chhattisgarh, India.
Background: Spirulina (genus Arthrospira) is a filamentous cyanobacterium widely consumed as a nutraceutical owing to its dense nutrient profile and diverse bioactivities. Rising global burdens of malnutrition, non-communicable diseases and sustainability challenges have renewed scientific and industrial interest in Spirulina-based interventions.Objective: This narrative–systematic, trend-based review critically synthesizes evidence (2020–2025) on the nutritional composition, therapeutic mechanisms, safety and industrial applications of Spirulina, highlighting translational gaps and future research priorities.Methods: A structured literature search of PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science (January 2020–December 2025) was conducted using predefined keywords related to Arthrospira, nutrition, therapeutics, mechanisms, safety and applications. Eligible peer reviewed studies, systematic reviews and meta-analyses were screened and thematically analyzed.Results: Spirulina provides high-quality protein, essential amino acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, minerals and bioactive pigments (phycocyanin, carotenoids). Preclinical and clinical evidence supports antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, cardiometabolic, antidiabetic and hepatoprotective effects, with emerging roles in gut–immune crosstalk and metabolic regulation. Industrial adoption spans functional foods, nutraceuticals, cosmetics, animal feed and biotechnological platforms, supported by comparatively low environmental footprints. However, heterogeneity in cultivation, processing, dosing and clinical endpoints limits comparability.Conclusion: Spirulina represents a scalable, sustainable bioresource with multifaceted health and industrial value. Standardization, rigorous clinical trials, systems-level mechanistic studies and regulatory harmonization are required to accelerate evidence-based translation.
Global malnutrition, micronutrient deficiencies and cardiometabolic diseases continue to impose substantial health and economic burdens. Concurrently, food systems face sustainability constraints driven by climate change and population growth.1 Spirulina (Arthrospira platensis and A. maxima) has gained prominence as a nutrient-dense, low-resource microalgal biomass capable of addressing nutritional gaps while supporting sustainable production.2 Beyond macronutrients, Spirulina contains bioactive compounds with pleiotropic biological effects, positioning it at the interface of nutrition, preventive medicine and biotechnology.3 Despite decades of use, the last five years have witnessed accelerated research on mechanistic pathways, clinical relevance and industrial scalability. 4This review consolidates recent evidence to provide a critical, submission?ready synthesis for biomedical and industrial stakeholders.
2. Methodology for Literature Search
2.1 Databases and Search Strategy
A systematic search was performed in PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science for articles published between January 2020 and December 2025. Search strings combined controlled vocabulary and keywords: ("Spirulina" or "Arthrospira") and (nutrition or therapeutic or phycocyanin or antioxidant or immunomodulatory or clinical or industry).5
2.2 Eligibility Criteria
Inclusion: Peer?reviewed original studies, randomized controlled trials, observational studies, systematic reviews and meta-analyses in English.
Exclusion: Non-peer?reviewed sources, abstracts without full text and studies lacking methodological transparency.
2.3 Screening and Synthesis
Titles and abstracts were screened, followed by full-text evaluation. Data were extracted on composition, mechanisms, clinical outcomes, safety and applications. Evidence was narratively synthesized with thematic categorization and critical appraisal.6
3. Nutritional Composition and Bioactive Constituents
Spirulina biomass comprises ~60-70% protein with a favorable essential amino acid profile. Lipid content includes γ?linolenic acid and other PUFAs. Micronutrients encompass iron, iodine (strain?dependent), magnesium, B?complex vitamins and trace elements.7
3.1 Bioactive Pigments
Phycocyanin is the hallmark pigment conferring potent antioxidant and anti?inflammatory properties through Nrf2 activation and NF?κB inhibition. Carotenoids (β?carotene, zeaxanthin) contribute to oxidative stress mitigation.8
4. Therapeutic Applications and Mechanistic Insights
4.1 Antioxidant and Anti?Inflammatory Effects
Spirulina attenuates oxidative stress by enhancing endogenous antioxidant enzymes (SOD, catalase) and reducing lipid peroxidation. Anti?inflammatory actions involve modulation of cytokine networks and eicosanoid pathways.9
4.2 Cardiometabolic Health
Clinical studies indicate improvements in lipid profiles, blood pressure and glycemic control, potentially mediated by AMPK activation and improved insulin sensitivity.10
4.3 Immunomodulation and Gut Health
Spirulina influences innate and adaptive immunity, enhancing NK cell activity and antibody responses. Emerging evidence links Spirulina supplementation to favorable gut microbiota shifts, reinforcing mucosal immunity.11
4.4 Safety and Tolerability
Generally regarded as safe at recommended doses; however, contamination with heavy metals or cyanotoxins underscores the need for quality-controlled cultivation and processing.12
5. Industrial and Biotechnological Applications
5.1 Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals
Spirulina is incorporated into beverages, snacks and supplements to enhance nutritional density.13
5.2 Cosmetics and Pharmaceuticals
Phycocyanin and polysaccharides are utilized for antioxidant, photoprotective and anti?aging formulations.14
5.3 Sustainability Considerations
High biomass yield, low freshwater demand and CO? utilization render Spirulina a sustainable industrial platform.15
6. Figures (Conceptual):
Figure 1 provides a conceptual overview of the integrated pathway linking Spirulina cultivation systems to its bioactive composition, molecular mechanisms, and associated health outcomes. The figure illustrates how cultivation strategies, including open pond and closed bioreactor systems, supported by solar energy, nutrient media, and carbon dioxide sequestration, contribute to biomass production. Harvested Spirulina biomass contains a wide range of bioactive constituents, such as phycocyanin, carotenoids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, polysaccharides, proteins, peptides, vitamins, and minerals. These bioactives influence key molecular mechanisms, including antioxidant defense, anti-inflammatory responses, immune modulation, metabolic regulation, and gut health, ultimately leading to beneficial health outcomes such as improved cardiometabolic health, anti-diabetic effects, liver protection, and enhanced immune function. Figure 2 presents a proposed mechanistic model illustrating how Spirulina-derived bioactive compounds exert antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects at the cellular level. The diagram highlights the roles of phycocyanin and carotenoids in modulating redox balance and immune signaling pathways. These compounds interact with reactive oxygen species and key transcription factors, including NF-κB and AP-1, thereby attenuating oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Through the regulation of immune cell activation and signaling cascades, Spirulina contributes to enhanced immune function and maintenance of cellular homeostasis.
Figure 1. Conceptual overview of Spirulina cultivation, bioactive components, and health outcomes.
[This figure presents an integrated framework linking Spirulina cultivation systems to its bioactive constituents, underlying molecular mechanisms, and associated health benefits. Spirulina is cultivated using open pond or closed bioreactor systems, utilizing solar energy, nutrient media, and carbon dioxide sequestration to produce biomass. Harvested biomass contains diverse bioactive compounds, including phycocyanin, carotenoids, polyunsaturated fatty acids (GLA and PUFAs), polysaccharides, proteins, peptides, vitamins, and minerals. These components modulate key molecular mechanisms such as antioxidant defense, anti-inflammatory activity, immune modulation, metabolic regulation, and gut health. Collectively, these pathways contribute to clinically relevant health outcomes, including cardiometabolic health improvement, anti-diabetic effects, liver protection, and enhanced immune function.]
Figure 2. Mechanistic model of Spirulina-mediated antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects.
[This schematic illustrates the cellular signaling pathways modulated by bioactive compounds derived from Spirulina, primarily phycocyanin and carotenoids. These compounds act at multiple molecular levels to attenuate oxidative stress and regulate immune responses. Phycocyanin and carotenoids scavenge reactive oxygen species and modulate redox-sensitive transcription factors, including NF-κB and AP-1, leading to reduced inflammatory signaling. Concurrently, these pathways influence immune cell activation and function, contributing to enhanced immune defense and maintenance of cellular homeostasis. The integrated antioxidant and immunomodulatory actions of Spirulina ultimately result in decreased oxidative damage and improved immune function.]
7. Tables
Table 1. Nutritional composition of Spirulina compared with conventional protein sources
|
Component |
Spirulina (Arthrospira) |
Soybean |
Egg (whole dried) |
Milk powder (skimmed) |
|
Energy (kcal) |
290–310 |
440–450 |
540–560 |
360–380 |
|
Protein (%) |
60–70 |
36–40 |
47–50 |
34–36 |
|
Essential amino acids |
High (complete profile, slightly low in methionine) |
Moderate |
High (complete) |
High |
|
Total lipids (%) |
6–8 |
18–20 |
42–45 |
1–2 |
|
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) |
High (γ-linolenic acid rich) |
Moderate (linoleic acid) |
Low |
Low |
|
Carbohydrates (%) |
15-20 |
30-35 |
3-5 |
50-52 |
|
Dietary fiber (%) |
3-5 |
9-10 |
0 |
0 |
|
Iron (mg) |
25-35 |
9-15 |
6-8 |
0.5-1 |
|
Calcium (mg) |
100-120 |
200-280 |
60-80 |
1200-1300 |
|
Magnesium (mg) |
180-200 |
240-260 |
40-50 |
110-130 |
|
Vitamin B12 (µg) |
Present (bioavailability debated) |
Absent |
Present |
Present |
|
β-Carotene (mg) |
15-30 |
Trace |
Trace |
Trace |
|
Antioxidant pigments |
Phycocyanin, carotenoids |
Isoflavones |
Minimal |
Minimal |
|
Cholesterol (mg) |
0 |
0 |
1400-1500 |
10-15 |
|
Environmental footprint |
Very low |
Moderate |
High |
High |
Table 2. Therapeutic mechanisms, evidence level and clinical relevance of Spirulina bioactives.
|
Bioactive component |
Primary therapeutic mechanism(s) |
Molecular/Cellular targets |
Evidence level (2020-2025) |
Clinical relevance and outcomes |
Strengths & limitations |
ReF. |
|
Phycocyanin |
Potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity |
Nrf2 activation, NF-κB inhibition, COX-2 suppression |
In vitro, animal models, limited human trials |
Reduction in oxidative stress, inflammatory markers; potential neuro and hepatoprotection |
Strong mechanistic evidence; limited large-scale RCTs |
16 |
|
γ-Linolenic acid (GLA) |
Modulation of lipid metabolism and inflammation |
Eicosanoid synthesis, PPAR-γ signaling |
Animal studies, small clinical trials |
Improved lipid profile, reduced inflammatory mediators in metabolic disorders |
Dose variability; long-term safety data limited |
17 |
|
Polysaccharides |
Immunomodulatory and antiviral effects |
Macrophage activation, TLR signaling pathways |
In vitro and animal models |
Enhanced innate immune responses; adjunct potential in infections |
Translational evidence limited; standardization needed |
17 |
|
Carotenoids (β-carotene, zeaxanthin) |
Antioxidant and photoprotective effects |
ROS scavenging, mitochondrial protection |
In vitro, observational human studies |
Eye health support, oxidative stress reduction |
Bioavailability influenced by processing |
18 |
|
Phenolic compounds |
Anti-inflammatory and metabolic regulation |
M |
19 |
Table 3. Advantages and limitations of Spirulina across food, pharmaceutical and industrial sectors.
|
Sector |
Applications |
Key advantages |
Limitations and challenges |
Regulatory / translational considerations |
Ref. |
|
Food & functional foods |
Protein fortification, beverages, snacks, dietary supplements |
High protein density; rich micronutrient and antioxidant profile; plant-based; low environmental footprint |
Strong color and taste may limit consumer acceptance; variability in nutrient composition |
Requires standardization of cultivation and labeling; GRAS status varies by region |
20 |
|
Nutraceuticals & pharmaceuticals |
Capsules, tablets, extracts (phycocyanin, peptides) |
Multimodal bioactivity (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory); generally safe at recommended doses |
Limited large-scale RCTs; variability in dosage and formulations; bioavailability concerns |
Need for dose-response cl |
21 |
8. Abbreviations
ACE: Angiotensin-converting enzyme
AMP: Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase
A. platensis: Arthrospira platensis
A. maxima: Arthrospira maxima
CO?: Carbon dioxide
COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2
GLA: Gamma-linolenic acid
GRAS: Generally Recognized As Safe
HDL: High-density lipoprotein
LDL: Low-density lipoprotein
MAPK: Mitogen-activated protein kinase
NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa-B
NK cells: Natural killer cells
Nrf2: Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2
PUFA: Polyunsaturated fatty acid
PPAR-γ: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma
RCT: Randomized controlled trial
ROS: Reactive oxygen species
SOD: Superoxide dismutase
TLR: Toll-like receptor
9.Future Perspectives and Research Gaps
Key gaps include standardized dosing, long?term safety data, strain?specific bioactivity profiling and large-scale RCTs. Systems biology, omics integration and life?cycle assessments will enhance translational precision.
CONCLUSION
Spirulina (Arthrospira) is a multifunctional bioresource with robust nutritional, therapeutic, and industrial potential. Addressing methodological heterogeneity and regulatory challenges will be pivotal for its evidence-based integration into global health and sustainable industry.
DECLARATION:
Ethics approval and consent to participate:
This manuscript is a review. Hence, no experiments in animals or humans are included in this study, so ethical approval and consent are not required.
Clinical Trial No:
The manuscript is a review article (not a part of Clinical trial), hence no Clinical trial no is applicable.
Consent for publication:
This manuscript does not contain any personal data. Hence, no consent is required/Not applicable
Availability of data and material:
Data sharing does not apply to this article as no datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.
Funding:
The authors received no funding for this manuscript.
Declaration of competing interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The authors are thankful to the Principal of Columbia Institute of Pharmacy, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India for providing infrastructural and library facilities to complete this review.
Author’s Information:
Shiv Kumar Bhardwaj
Assistant Professor
Columbia Institute of Pharmacy,
Vill-Tekari, Near Vidhansabha,
Raipur-493111, Chhattisgarh, India
Email: shivbhardwaj1991@gmail.com
Mob: 79999-47549, 91654-03639.
Trilochan Satapathy
Professor and HOD
Columbia Institute of Pharmacy,
Tekari, Near Vidhansabha,
Raipur-493111, Chhattisgarh, India
Email: drtsatapathy@gmail.com
Mob: +91-7898369287
ORCID ID: 0000-0001-6871-1288
REFERENCES
Shiv Kumar Bhardwaj, Trilochan Satapathy, Spirulina (Arthrospira) as a Functional Superfood: A Comprehensive Review of Its Nutritional, Therapeutic, Industrial Applications and Future Perspectives, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2026, Vol 4, Issue 2, 2797-2805. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18682422
10.5281/zenodo.18682422
