Bioactive Riches of Tradescantia: A Review of Its Phytoconstituents and Medicinal Value

Abstract

Tradescantia, a genus rich in diverse bioactive phytoconstituents, has garnered significant attention due to its potential medicinal applications. This review explores the wide array of chemical compounds present in Tradescantia, including flavonoids, saponins, and phenolic acids, which contribute to its therapeutic properties. Recognized for its traditional use in treating various ailments, Tradescantia is now the subject of scientific scrutiny to substantiate its health-promoting effects. The review consolidates current research on the pharmacological benefits of these phytochemicals, highlighting their roles in anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activities. Furthermore, it addresses the contemporary methodologies employed in extracting and optimizing these bioactive compounds. The promising pharmacological properties of Tradescantia suggest its potential as a source for developing new therapeutic agents. Consequently, more comprehensive studies are warranted to fully elucidate the mechanisms of action and to harness its full potential in modern medicine.

Keywords

Tradescantia, Pharmacological activity, Anti-inflammatory, Antioxidant, Antimicrobial activities and Phytoconstituents.

Introduction

3. Phytochemical Composition

4. Biological Activities

The phytochemical makeup of Tradescantia species may be connected to the many bioactive characteristics reported for them.  For example, a number of research have documented the bioactive characteristics of epigallocatechin, including its anticancer, anti-inflammatory, diabetes prevention, and antioxidant effects. Another phytochemical molecule with documented antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antidiabetic, and cardioprotective qualities is hydroxy-tyrosyl. Several of these compounds are highlighted in Tan et al.'s recent review of the bioactive characteristics of specific compounds found in Tradescantia plants: rutin, epigallocatechin, (6S,9R)-roseoside, kaempferol, oresbiusin A, hydroxy-tyrosyl, protocatechuic acid, latifolicin (A, B, and C), and ferulic, vanillic, chlorogenic, and p-coumaric acids.  Other plant sources have identified kaempferol, protocatechuic acid, rutin, and epigallocatechin as anticancer and antioxidant compounds.[28–30]

4.1 Antioxidant Activity

Vegetable or food sources' antioxidant content has grown in significance as a means of preventing oxidative stress.  A disparity between the generation of ROS, which are reactive oxygen species, in tissues and cells and the capacity of an organism to use antioxidant agents to compensate for the damage that results is known as oxidative stress.  Through the generation of peroxides and free radicals, this imbalance can have harmful effects that harm all cellular constituents, including proteins, fatty acids, and DNA. The various chemicals that make up the antioxidant system can be broadly categorized as either naturally occurring or synthetic antioxidants. Numerous enzymes and non-enzymatic substances are examples of endogenous antioxidants.  Vitamins (like A, C, and E), carotenoids (like lutein, zeaxanthin, and lycopene), phenolic compounds (like flavonoids and phenolic acids), glucosinolates, and organosulfur compounds are examples of exogenous antioxidants that are mostly found in the diet. Phenolic compounds' superior hydrogen-donating capabilities, wherein reactive molecules accept to produce considerably fewer active radical and non-radical species, are the basis for their antioxidant properties.  The oxygen radical absorbance capacity assay (ORAC), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity assay (TEAC), ferric reducing antioxidant power assay (FRAP), and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl assay (DPPH) are some of the various techniques used to assess the effectiveness of antioxidants. [31,32]

A transfer process between hydrogen atoms is used in the DPPH and ORAC tests.  The ORAC assay tracks the reduction of oxidation caused by peroxyl radicals to determine an antioxidant's capacity to break radical chains. In dietary and physiological processes, radicals made up of peroxyl are the most common free radicals involved in lipid oxidation. A sensitive antioxidant test that relies on substrate polarity is the DPPH radical scavenging test. One possibility for radical scavenging and/or hydrogen donation is the presence of numerous hydroxyl functionalities. ROS overproduction, a form of iron-dependent oxidative cell death brought on by a number of causes, can result in ferroptosis.  Ferroptosis differs from apoptosis in that it also results from a breakdown in antioxidant defense, which causes cellular redox equilibrium to be lost. TEAC and FRAP tests, on the other hand, rely on single-electron transfer.  The splitting of Fe (III) to Fe (II) is the foundation of the FRAP technique.[33] One study examined the antioxidant properties of T. zebrina, T. pallida, and R. spathacea using ferrous ion chelating (FIC), phenolic ferric reducing power (FRP), and DPPH free radical scavenging (FRS) assays; the findings demonstrated that T. zebrina had the best antioxidant efficacy values.[34] Another study detailed the protective effects of T. pallida, demonstrating that this plant can fight against oxidative damage.[35]

4.2 Anti-inflammatory Activity

A live organism's immune reaction to many contagious agents, including bacteria and viruses, is known as inflammation.  Common symptoms of inflammation include fever, discomfort, and redness.  Although synthetic medications have demonstrated effectiveness in reducing inflammatory processes, adverse effects are also frequently experienced.  Numerous plant sources, including some species of Tradescantia, have been investigated as prospective substitutes to reduce inflammatory processes because of their phytochemical makeup, which has anti-inflammatory properties.

A particular species that has been found to have anti-inflammatory properties is T. fluminensis, also referred to as Wandering Jew.[36] In a study that assessed the anti-inflammatory properties of chemicals extracted from T. albiflora, it was discovered that methyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate, hydroxytyrosol, and bracteanolide A had strong inhibitory effects on the formation of nitric oxide (NO) in a RAW 264.7 cell culture.  Since NO generation takes place throughout inflamed processes, it serves as a reliable gauge of the degree of inflammation.  5-O-n-butyl bracteanolide A demonstrated the most beneficial inflammatory potential of the three compounds that were assessed.[37] Another study evaluated the lipoxygenase's inhibitory activity using extracts of leaves from T. fluminensis and T. zebrina. Lipoxygenase contributed to the synthesis of mediators of lipids, which were crucial for inflammatory reactions. The most promising organism was T. fluminensis, which displayed an 87% reduction value.[38]

4.3 Cytotoxic Activity

Chan and colleagues used the neutral red uptake (NRU) and 3-(4,5 dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) tests to assess the cytotoxicity of six medicinal plants, including T. zebrina.  This study assessed six extracts made using various solvents, including ethanol, methanol, water, ethyl acetate, hexane, and chloroform.  In a model of monkey kidney epithelial cells (Vero), the cell damage activity was assessed using extract concentrations varying from 5 to 640 µg/mL.  The findings demonstrated that compared to aqueous, methanolic, and ethanolic extracts, the chloroform, hexane, and ethyl acetate extracts were more hazardous to Vero cells.  Accordingly, the findings showed that the cytotoxicity of the assessed medicinal plants—including T. zebrina—depended on the extraction solvent and dosage.[39]

The cytotoxicity and luminous properties of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) were assessed by Li et al. utilising an aqueous leaf extract (TPALE) of T. pallida. In order to create nanoparticles, 80 mL of zinc acetate (1 mM) was combined with 20 mg of TPALE. The particle was then heated to 350 oC for five hours after the fluid was centrifuged. Several methods, including X-ray diffraction, electron transmission microscopy, and microscopy with scanning electrons, were used to characterise the synthesised ZnO NPs. The rod-shaped particles that resulted were 25 ± 2 nm in size. The MTT assay was used to assess the nanoparticles' cytotoxic impact on a HeLa cell line. According to the findings, when 1000 mg/mL of ZnO NP was administered, 98.9% of the cancer cells perished. According to this, the biogenic ZnO NP exhibited improved cytotoxic properties towards a cancerous cervical cell line, suggesting that it may be developed extensively as an anticancer medication. More research should be done to confirm the reproducibility of these results using a lower dose, though, as this dose is regarded as high.[40]

4.4 Anticancer Activity

As per study it is assessed that the cancer-fighting abilities of T. fluminensis and T. zibrina both in methanol and in water extracts on the lung malignancy A549, carcinoma of squamous cells SCC-13y, and human foreskin fibroblasts HFF-1 cell types.  The findings demonstrated a reduction in the rate of cancer cell division, particularly upon the addition of T. zebrina to the regimen.  Thus, the suppressive impact of T. fluminensis and T. zebrina on cancer and non-cancer cells was validated by our investigation.[41] In another study, by using SCC-13y and A-549 cell cultures, assessed the anticancer effects of T. zebrina methanol extract and water-based extracts. For five days, every single one of cells was monitored in order to determine how quickly the plant extract inhibited the cells. Both cell lines' cell proliferation was reduced, according to the data. To determine the herbal extractions’ comparable toxicology, they were also tested against the HFF-1 benign cell line. T. zebrina shown the ability to suppress both cancerous and noncancerous cells.[42]

A crude T. spathacea water extraction's curative properties towards malignancies of the liver were assessed by Reyes et al. utilising a cancer-causing model of refractory hepatocellular in rats.  Preneoplastic tumours were less numerous and smaller in area when the water-based raw extract was administered at a dose of less than 20 mg/kg body weight.  There were no initiation or amplifier effects from the water-based extract administration, nor was there any establishment of modified liver cells foci.[43] . T. spathacea leaves extract's cancer-fighting capacity was assessed in a different investigation using the human breast adenocarcinoma cell line (MCF-7). The findings demonstrated that at a dosage of 299.7 µg/mL, a 50% suppression of MCF-7 was found.[44] Synthesis ZnO particles derived from T. pallida were reported to exhibit cytotoxic actions towards a cancer of the cervical cavity line of cells in another study.[45]

4.5 Antifungal and Antibacterial Activities

For the manufacture of confectionery, cocoa has been recognized as an important source of revenue having financial, social, and ecological consequences.  One element that significantly impacts the calibre of beans made from cocoa is diseases and insects.  Moniliophthora roreri is one of the primary harmful fungi that have been found to impact cocoa plant quality.  T. spathacea, Origanum vulgare, and Zingiber officinale extracts were tested for their ability to inhibit M. roreri growth in order to stop these phenomena. When 40–50% of fresh and dry plants were used, the results demonstrated that every single one of them inhibited the proliferation of M. roreri conidia.[46] Methanolic extracts of T. zebrina, T. pallida, and T. spathacea leaves demonstrated antimicrobial properties towards Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus cereus, Proteus vulgaris, Enterococcus faecalis, Micrococcus luteus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.[47]

4.6 Other Biological Activities

Several Tradescantia species were additionally examined for additional biological functions.  For instance, various concentrations of a tea extract from T. zebrina (2.5–10% m/v) have been used to study the larvicidal action against Anopheles benarrochi.  Following a 24-hour exposure period, a median LC50 of 0.86% was reached.[48] In another study, by using aconitine to act as a tachycardia inducer in rats to test the antagonistic activity of β-ecdysone, which has been extracted from T. zebrina.  This study demonstrated the possible substantial antiarrhythmic action of the physiologically active chemicals found in Tradescantia species.[49] The methanolic solution of T. zebrina leaves was tested for its in vitro ACE inhibiting effect by Cheah et al.  The activity of this enzyme has been linked to a number of illnesses, including neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer's.  The ACE activity fell significantly (p < 0.05) by 14.0% and 15.3%, respectively, at doses of 100.00 and 10.00 µg/mL of extract, according to the data.[50]

T. pathacea and seven different types of herbal remedies were tested by Sriwanthana et al. for their ability to inhibit the naturally occurring immune system cells known as neural killer (NK) cells.  It was discovered that all cells, in a dose-dependent way, greatly increased human lymphocyte proliferating activity when subjected to high doses. The authors discovered that the plant species under study had intriguing impact on human lymphoid cells contributing significantly to altering the immune system's reaction.[51]

Only a small number of the many species in the genus Tradescantia have undergone biological investigation; the most extensively researched are T. zebrina, T. spathacea, T. fluminensis, and T. pallida.  In order to make further progress, it is generally required to keep researching the physiological functions of Tradescantia species and to increase the number of tests in in vivo models.  To guarantee the accuracy of the results described in this study, more research ought to be done.  Investigations on the phytochemical components' biological activity, accessibility, and physiological accessibility are also required.  Knowing which substances may enter the target tissues and have positive effects is crucial. The pharmacological qualities of these extracts or chemicals, which may be applied in contemporary medicine, are still not well understood. To strengthen the scientific proof and convert the conventional use of these herbs into applications in contemporary healthcare or food, further research should be done on the pharmacological qualities, accessibility, metabolic rate, and long-term consequences of Tradescantia extracts.

5. Prevention and adverse consequences

Numerous biologically active compounds are found in plants, some of which have been shown to have therapeutic benefits, whereas others have adverse consequences and are detrimental to the well-being of humans.  The latter are often metabolites that are secondary or small-molecule endogenous poisons that plants create to defend against microbes, insects, and mammals.  Alkaloids, glycosides, proteins, and saponin glycosides are the four primary classes into which plant poisons are often categorized according to their chemical structures.  Although there are few instances of negative responses to components from this plant, the presence of phytochemicals such alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, and phenols in Tradescantia preparations suggests that the plant may have hazardous qualities.  This is because, in contrast to their pharmaceutical counterparts, the detrimental effects of herbaceous plants are far more regulated.[52–54]

Tradescantia spp. is classified as belonging to the 4th class of hazard, meaning that its juice, sap, or spines may cause discomfort or skin rashes.  Crystals of calcium oxalate that are present in the parenchymal tissues of the stem, roots, foliage, and blossoms may be the cause of this possible toxicity.  These crystals may be secreted by plant cells in humid settings and may subsequently come into touch with the skin. Five titles mentioning the danger of this plant were recorded in the FDA's hazardous Plant Directory in December 2019.  There has only been one documented human case of a 32-year-old patient being hypersensitive to Tradescantia species (T. albifloxia and T. fluminensis).[55–58]

Along with a history of allergic dermatitis, the patient also had puffy lips, breathing difficulties, and an irritated face, throat, and eyes.  According to the latest research by Wang et al., an extract made from methanol of T. zebrina leaves might activate the enzyme cytochrome (CYP) 3A4, which breaks down medications in human hepatic microsomes.  According to certain research, T. fluminensis may have negative effects on dogs, including allergic responses that result in painful, itchy skin.[59,60]  To validate the impact of Tradescantia spp. on the human immune system, more in vivo research has to be done.[61]

Despite these rare instances of potential harm to people's health, these kinds of plants continue to be utilized in conventional healthcare and beverage manufacture.  In the absence of precise data about the detrimental effects of entire plants or plant extracts on human health, it is only possible to conclude that the primary bioactive substances found in those plants have a detrimental influence on human health. Brown algae and bananas (Musasapientum) have been reported to contain a chemical called 3-epicyclomusalenol, which is also present in Tradescantia spp.  This molecule has no known adverse effects, based on the Human Metabolome Database (HMDB).  Ergosterol peroxide, which is likewise derived from the pineapple plant Ananas comosus and the fungus Ganoderma lucidum, is a potentially effective novel remedy for treating tumor cells that are resistant to drugs. However, no details on the compound's biological interactions and adverse effects have been provided.  The antioxidant polyphenol methyl 3,4-dihydroxybenzoate, which is present in green tea, reduces the harmful effects of fluoride on lung epithelial cells.[62–65]

4-Hydroxybenzoic acid is an antioxidant with minimal toxicity that can cause cancer cells in humans to produce estrogen.  It has been found that some phytosterols exert cytotoxic impacts on normal cells that are more or less severe.  Although β-sitosterol has been deemed safe, typical adverse effects following consumption have included indigestion, nausea, and diarrhea.  Although β-sitosterol is not advised for usage in children, pregnant women should avoid this substance due to its known uterine stimulating properties.  Because sitosterol and other lipids abnormally increase in the blood, it is well recognized that β-sitosterol should not be utilized in sitosterolemia. The latest findings in a rodent model shown that stigmasterol exposure causes neutrophil infiltration, myocardial interstitial inflammation, dysfunction of the left ventricle, and higher mortality rates despite cholesterol. However, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) states that there is no proof that the phytosterols or phytosterol derivatives are carcinogenic or genetically toxic, and hence plants high in stigma steroids are not a reproductive health issue.[66–69]

6. Future directions

The future directions for research on the phytoconstituents and medicinal value of Tradescantia can be guided by several key areas highlighted in recent literature.

Firstly, the extraction and processing methods for bioactive phytoconstituents need to be further explored and optimized. It is crucial to develop techniques that increase the potency and bioavailability of these compounds while ensuring sustainable resource.[70] Researchers could focus on novel extraction methods that maximize yield and purity, such as supercritical fluid extraction or green chemistry approaches, which minimize environmental impact.

Secondly, as demonstrated in the field of nanophytosome development, the enhancement of delivery systems for phytoconstituents offers promising future research avenues. These nanostructured vehicles improve the stability, solubility, and targeted delivery of herbal compounds, which can enhance their therapeutic efficacy in various applications such as pharmaceuticals and nutraceuticals.[71] Investigating the integration of Tradescantia phytoconstituents into such delivery systems could significantly advance their practical use.

The third area for future research is through the application of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) to enhance the production of Tradescantia. This approach, which leverages beneficial microorganisms to increase plant biomass and phytochemical content, represents an eco-friendly and cost-effective method to boost the quality of medicinal plants.[72] Studies could examine how PGPR affects the specific phytoconstituents of Tradescantia and optimize cultivation conditions for maximal bioactive compound production.

Additionally, the diverse biological activities of related plant species, as seen in the research on Zanthoxylum and Cucumis, suggest that exploring similar pharmacological properties in Tradescantia could be fruitful.[73,74] Future studies might delve into specific therapeutic effects such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, or antimicrobial properties, which are crucial in addressing modern health issues.

Furthermore, integrating Tradescantia phytoconstituents into functional foods or nutraceutical products represents a promising avenue for the prevention and management of chronic diseases, leveraging their health benefits in a more accessible form.[75] Research can focus on food science approaches to incorporate these compounds into daily diets, enhancing public health outcomes.

Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the action of Tradescantia's phytochemicals can guide the development of new drug therapies, as highlighted in antibacterial phytoconstituent research.[76] Investigating the pathway interactions and cellular targets of key compounds in Tradescantia may reveal new therapeutic applications and potentiate the plant's medicinal value.

Lastly, there is potential for conducting interdisciplinary research to combine phytochemical studies with genetics and biotechnology. This may involve sequencing the genome of Tradescantia to identify genes involved in the synthesis of key bioactives, facilitating their manipulation for enhanced production.[77] Such biotechnological applications could play a significant role in overcoming current production limitations and meeting the rising demand for natural therapeutic compounds.

By pursuing these future directions, the research community can unlock the full potential of Tradescantia as a valuable source of bioactive compounds with diverse medicinal applications.

7. Future direction in nano formulations

The future direction of nano-formulations for the phytoconstituents of Tradescantia involves several promising avenues. The application of nanotechnology to enhance the delivery, efficacy, and bioavailability of these compounds represents a significant advancement in the field of herbal medicine.

One of the most exciting prospects is the development of targeted nanodrug delivery systems. These systems, including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, and inorganic carriers, have shown great potential in cancer therapy by enabling precise targeting and reducing systemic toxicity.[78] For Tradescantia, formulating its bioactive compounds into these delivery vehicles could enhance their medicinal properties, offering new treatment possibilities for a range of conditions.

Moreover, the integration of nanotechnology into the formulation of phytoconstituents can significantly enhance their bioavailability and therapeutic impact. As demonstrated in other plant-based systems, nanocarriers can improve solubility, provide controlled release, and ensure stability against metabolic degradation.[79] Applying similar strategies to Tradescantia could lead to more effective use of its phytochemicals in various medicinal applications.

The use of advanced nanomaterials such as MXenes and layered double hydroxides (LDHs) holds additional promise. MXenes have exceptional mechanical and electrical properties that make them suitable for enhancing the performance and efficacy of bioactive compounds in medicinal applications. Similarly, organically-modified LDHs can overcome stability challenges, thus improving the delivery and function of Tradescantia's bioactive.[80,81].

Nanotechnology also opens up new avenues for personalized and precision medicine. By using AI-driven approaches, it is possible to tailor the formulation of Tradescantia nanocomposites to individual patient needs, enhancing treatment outcomes through customized drug delivery systems.[82] This has the potential to revolutionize how herbal medicines are integrated into modern medical practices.

Despite these promising directions, challenges remain. These include ensuring the safety and biocompatibility of nano-formulations and navigating regulatory frameworks that govern their clinical use.[83] Future research must focus on addressing these challenges through rigorous preclinical and clinical studies to validate the efficacy and safety of Tradescantia-based nano-formulations.

In summary, the future of nano-formulations for Tradescantia's phytoconstituents is poised to significantly impact the field of herbal medicine. By leveraging the advancements in nanotechnology, the therapeutic potential of Tradescantia can be maximized, offering more effective and targeted treatments for a host of medical conditions. This direction not only promises to elevate the therapeutic profile of this traditional plant but also to integrate it more deeply into the fabric of contemporary medical science.

CONCLUSION

The most extensively researched species in the genus Tradescantia include T. zebrina, T. fluminensis, T. spathacea, and T. albiflora.  Most of the published work relies on conventional applications, descriptive analyses, and other than medicinal uses, even though study has mostly concentrated on the phytochemical structure and/or biological activity of Tradescantia species. In terms of bioactivity, T. zebrina has been the species in the genus that has been examined the most.

Increasing our understanding of the biological processes of action of Tradescantia compounds is essential to the development of possible medicinal uses centered around these chemical compounds.  To further understand the phytochemical profile in both qualitative and quantitative terms, as well as the associated tests to look at their pharmacological activities, more research should be done.  Future research on this species should take into account the use of contemporary methodologies including transcriptomics, proteomics, metabolomics, and genomes.  A more methodical approach is required to guarantee that data are consistently gathered in future research due to the huge number of species in the genus Tradescantia.

In conclusion, Tradescantia emerges as a promising medicinal plant with an array of bioactive phytoconstituents that offer significant therapeutic potential. The diverse biochemical profile of this plant, highlighted by its rich composition of flavonoids, saponins, and other phytochemicals, underpins its traditional and potential medicinal uses. Tradescantia has demonstrated various biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties, making it a valuable candidate for further pharmacological exploration and development. As scientific interest grows, the need for comprehensive studies to evaluate the efficacy and safety of Tradescantia in clinical settings becomes increasingly important. Future research should focus on optimizing extraction methods, understanding the mechanisms of action, and developing nano-formulations that enhance the bioavailability of its active compounds. By advancing our understanding and application of Tradescantia's medicinal properties, this plant could play a vital role in the development of novel therapeutic agents for managing diverse health conditions.

REFERENCES

1. Adhikari K, Lo I-W, Chen C-L, et al. Chemoenzymatic Synthesis and Biological Evaluation for Bioactive Molecules Derived from Bacterial Benzoyl Coenzyme A Ligase and Plant Type III Polyketide Synthase. Biomolecules. 2020;10(5):738.
2. Prakash Mishra A, Sharifi-Rad M, Shariati MA, et al. Bioactive compounds and health benefits of edible Rumex species-A review. Cell Mol Biol Noisy--Gd Fr. 2018;64(8):27–34.
3. Sasidharan S, Chen Y, Saravanan D, et al. Extraction, Isolation and Characterization of Bioactive Compounds from Plants’ Extracts. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern Med. 2010;8(1):1–10.
4. Vaghela N, Gohel S. Medicinal plant-associated rhizobacteria enhance the production of pharmaceutically important bioactive compounds under abiotic stress conditions. J Basic Microbiol. 2023;63(3–4):308–325.
5. Kumar S, Chauhan N, Tyagi B, et al. Exploring bioactive compounds and antioxidant properties of twenty-six Indian medicinal plant extracts: A correlative analysis for potential therapeutic insights. Food Humanity. 2023;1:1670–1679.
6. Uwineza PA, Wa?kiewicz A. Recent Advances in Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Natural Bioactive Compounds from Natural Plant Materials. Molecules. 2020;25(17):3847.
7. Golak-Siwulska I, Ka?u?ewicz A, Spi?ewski T, et al. Bioactive compounds and medicinal properties of Oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus sp.). Folia Hortic. 2018;30(2):191–201.
8. Li C, Wang M. Application of Hairy Root Culture for Bioactive Compounds Production in Medicinal Plants. Curr Pharm Biotechnol. 2021;22(5):592–608.
9. Functional Foods: Exploring the Health Benefits of Bioactive Compounds from Plant and Animal Sources - Dixit - 2023 - Journal of Food Quality - Wiley Online Library [Internet]. [cited 2025 Aug 24]. Available from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2023/5546753.
10. Pellegrini MOO. Morphological phylogeny of Tradescantia L. (Commelinaceae) sheds light on a new infrageneric classification for the genus and novelties on the systematics of subtribe Tradescantiinae. PhytoKeys. 2017;(89):11–72.
11. Pellegrini MOO, Forzza RC, Sakuragui CM. Novelties in Brazilian Tradescantia L. (Commelinaceae). PhytoKeys. 2017;(80):1–31.
12. Butnariu M, Quispe C, Herrera-Bravo J, et al. A Review on Tradescantia: Phytochemical Constituents, Biological Activities and Health-Promoting Effects. Front Biosci Landmark Ed. 2022;27(6):197.
13. Benzie IFF, Wachtel-Galor S, editors. Herbal Medicine: Biomolecular and Clinical Aspects [Internet]. 2nd ed. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor & Francis; 2011 [cited 2025 Aug 25]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92771/.
14. Boy HIA, Rutilla AJH, Santos KA, et al. Recommended Medicinal Plants as Source of Natural Products: A Review. Digit Chin Med. 2018;1(2):131–142.
15. Brandon G. The Uses of Plants in Healing in an Afro-Cuban Religion, Santeria. J Black Stud. 1991;22(1):55–76.
16. [PDF] MEDICINAL PLANTS OF THE GUIANAS (GUYANA, SURINAM, FRENCH GUIANA) | Semantic Scholar [Internet]. [cited 2025 Aug 25]. Available from: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/MEDICINAL-PLANTS-OF-THE-GUIANAS-(GUYANA%2C-SURINAM%2C-Defilipps-Maina/81cfc6406dd26c21d6e536ac68f9468b2a85c4cb.
17. Ragrario E, Zayas C, Obico JJ. Useful plants of selected Ayta communities from Porac, Pampanga, twenty years after the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo. Philipp J Sci [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2025 Aug 25];142(3).
18. Kushwaha S, Kukshaal M, Patil SM. Review on Tradescantia spathacea (Medicinal Plant). J Res Appl Sci Biotechnol. 2024;3(6):104–115.
19. Review on Tradescantia spathacea (Medicinal Plant) | Journal for Research in Applied Sciences and Biotechnology [Internet]. [cited 2025 Sept 16]. Available from: https://jrasb.com/index.php/jrasb/article/view/686.
20. Shahzadi I, Aziz Shah SM, Shah MM, et al. Antioxidant, Cytotoxic, and Antimicrobial Potential of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized using Tradescantia pallida Extract. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2022;10:907551.
21. Wójciak M, Pacu?a W, Sowa I, et al. Hamamelis virginiana L. in Skin Care: A Review of Its Pharmacological Properties and Cosmetological Applications. Molecules. 2025;30(13):2744.
22. Del Pero Martínez MA, Martínez AJ. Flavonoid distribution in Tradescantia. Biochem Syst Ecol. 1993;21(2):255–265.
23. Tan JBL, Yap WJ, Tan SY, et al. Antioxidant Content, Antioxidant Activity, and Antibacterial Activity of Five Plants from the Commelinaceae Family. Antioxid Basel Switz. 2014;3(4):758–769.
24. (PDF) In Vitro Antioxidant and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activities of Tradescantia zebrina. ResearchGate [Internet]. 2025 [cited 2025 Aug 25];
25. Lopes LES, da Silva Barroso S, Caldas JKM, et al. Neuroprotective effects of Tradescantia spathacea tea bioactives in Parkinson’s disease: In vivo proof-of-concept. J Tradit Complement Med. 2024;14(4):435–445.
26. (PDF) Determination of phenolic bioactive compounds and evaluation of the antioxidant and hemolytic activities in the methanolic extracts of Tradescantia zebrina. ResearchGate [Internet]. [cited 2025 Aug 25]; doi: 10.15446/rcciquifa.v51n3.101403.
27. Shahzadi I, Aziz Shah SM, Shah MM, et al. Antioxidant, Cytotoxic, and Antimicrobial Potential of Silver Nanoparticles Synthesized using Tradescantia pallida Extract. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2022;10:907551.
28. Cai Z-Y, Li X-M, Liang J-P, et al. Bioavailability of Tea Catechins and Its Improvement. Mol Basel Switz. 2018;23(9):2346.
29. Tan JBL, Kwan YM. The biological activities of the spiderworts (Tradescantia). Food Chem. 2020;317:126411.
30. Georgieva A, Ilieva Y, Kokanova-Nedialkova Z, et al. Redox-Modulating Capacity and Antineoplastic Activity of Wastewater Obtained from the Distillation of the Essential Oils of Four Bulgarian Oil-Bearing Roses. Antioxid Basel Switz. 2021;10(10):1615.
31. Lobo V, Patil A, Phatak A, et al. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: Impact on human health. Pharmacogn Rev. 2010;4(8):118–126.
32. Litescu SC, Eremia S, Radu GL. Methods for the determination of antioxidant capacity in food and raw materials. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2010;698:241–249.
33. Morales-Soto A, García-Salas P, Rodríguez-Pérez C, et al. Antioxidant capacity of 44 cultivars of fruits and vegetables grown in Andalusia (Spain). Food Res Int. 2014;58:35–46.
34. Tan JBL, Yap WJ, Tan SY, et al. Antioxidant Content, Antioxidant Activity, and Antibacterial Activity of Five Plants from the Commelinaceae Family. Antioxid Basel Switz. 2014;3(4):758–769.
35. Sinha V, Pakshirajan K, Chaturvedi R. Chromium(VI) accumulation and tolerance by Tradescantia pallida: biochemical and antioxidant study. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2014;173(8):2297–2306.
36. In brief: What is an inflammation? - InformedHealth.org - NCBI Bookshelf [Internet]. [cited 2025 Aug 25]. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279298/.
37. Tu P-C, Tseng H-C, Liang Y-C, et al. Phytochemical Investigation of Tradescantia Albiflora and Anti-Inflammatory Butenolide Derivatives. Mol Basel Switz. 2019;24(18):3336.
38. Alaba CSM, Chichioco-Hernandez CL. 15-Lipoxygenase inhibition of Commelina benghalensis, Tradescantia fluminensis, Tradescantia zebrina. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed. 2014;4(3):184–188.
39. Chan SM, Khoo KS, Sit NW. Interactions between Plant Extracts and Cell Viability Indicators during Cytotoxicity Testing: Implications for Ethnopharmacological Studies. Trop J Pharm Res. 2015;14(11):1991–1998.
40. Li C, Zhang Z, Mao J, et al. Preparation of Tradescantia pallida-mediated zinc oxide nanoparticles and their activity against cervical cancer cell lines. Trop J Pharm Res. 2017;16(3):494.
41. Brauner A, Leist B, Langsford S, et al. Effect of aqueous and methanol extracts of tradescantia zebrina and fluminensis on human cells. 2012 [cited 2025 Aug 26];
42. The Anti?Proliferative Properties of Tradescantia zebrina [Internet]. [cited 2025 Aug 26]. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352450255_The_Anti-Proliferative_Properties_of_Tradescantia_zebrina.
43. Aqueous crude extract of Rhoeo discolor, a Mexican medicinal plant, decreases the formation of liver preneoplastic foci in rats - PubMed [Internet]. [cited 2025 Aug 26]. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18063494/.
44. admin. ABERRANT EXPRESSION OF WNT/BETA-CATENIN SIGNALING PATHWAY AND IN -VITRO CYTOTOXIC ACTIVITY OF TRADESCANTIA SPATHACEA MEDICINAL PLANT USED TO TREAT HUMAN BREAST ADENOCARCINOMA (MCF-7 CELL LINES) | INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES AND RESEARCH [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2025 Aug 26]. Available from: https://ijpsr.com/bft-article/aberrant-expression-of-wntbeta-catenin-signaling-pathway-and-in-vitro-cytotoxic-activity-of-tradescantia-spathacea-medicinal-plant-used-to-treat-human-breast-adenocarcinoma-mcf-7-cell-lines/.
45. Li C, Zhang Z, Mao J, et al. Preparation of Tradescantia pallida-mediated zinc oxide nanoparticles and their activity against cervical cancer cell lines. Trop J Pharm Res. 2017;16(3):494.
46. Review on Tradescantia spathacea (Medicinal Plant) | Journal for Research in Applied Sciences and Biotechnology [Internet]. [cited 2025 Aug 26]. Available from: https://jrasb.com/index.php/jrasb/article/view/686.
47. Tan JBL, Yap WJ, Tan SY, et al. Antioxidant Content, Antioxidant Activity, and Antibacterial Activity of Five Plants from the Commelinaceae Family. Antioxid Basel Switz. 2014;3(4):758–769.
48. Assessment UENC for E. Interactions between Plant Extracts and Cell Viability Indicators during Cytotoxicity Testing: Implications for Ethnopharmacological Studies [Internet]. 2009 [cited 2025 Aug 26]. Available from: https://hero.epa.gov/hero/index.cfm/reference/details/reference_id/3697258.
49. Practical uses for ecdysteroids in mammals including humans: an update - PMC [Internet]. [cited 2025 Aug 26]. Available from: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC524647/.
50. (PDF) In Vitro Antioxidant and Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitory Activities of Tradescantia zebrina [Internet]. [cited 2025 Aug 26]. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315668240_In_Vitro_Antioxidant_and_Acetylcholinesterase_Inhibitory_Activities_of_Tradescantia_zebrina.
51. (PDF) In vitro effects of Thai medicinal plants on human lymphocyte activity. ResearchGate [Internet]. 2025 [cited 2025 Aug 26];
52. Alotaibi SS, Alshoaibi D, Alamari H, et al. Potential significance of medicinal plants in forensic analysis: A review. Saudi J Biol Sci. 2021;28(7):3929–3935.
53. Patel S, Nag MK, Daharwal SJ, et al. Plant Toxins: An Overview. Res J Pharmacol Pharmacodyn. 2014;5(5):283–288.
54. Anywar G, Kakudidi E, Byamukama R, et al. A Review of the Toxicity and Phytochemistry of Medicinal Plant Species Used by Herbalists in Treating People Living With HIV/AIDS in Uganda. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:615147.
55. Yumpu.com. Safe and Poisonous Garden Plants [Internet]. yumpu.com. [cited 2025 Sept 1]. Available from: https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/view/12038425/safe-and-poisonous-garden-plants.
56. Mueller RS, Janda J, Jensen-Jarolim E, et al. Allergens in veterinary medicine. Allergy. 2016;71(1):27–35.
57. Modi GM, Doherty CB, Katta R, et al. Irritant contact dermatitis from plants. Dermat Contact Atopic Occup Drug. 2009;20(2):63–78.
58. FDA Poisonous Plant Database | FDA [Internet]. [cited 2025 Sept 1]. Available from: https://www.fda.gov/food/science-research-food/fda-poisonous-plant-database.
59. Wüthrich B, Johansson SG. Allergy to the ornamental indoor green plant Tradescantia (Albifloxia). Allergy. 1997;52(5):556–559.
60. Modulation of rat hepatic CYP3A4 activity by Brassica oleracea, Hibiscus rosa sinensis, and Tradescantia zebrina. Biointerface Res Appl Chem. 2020;11(1):7453–7459.
61. Marsella R, Kunkle G, Lewis D. Use of pentoxifylline in the treatment of allergic contact reactions to plants of the Commelinceae family in dogs. Vet Dermatol. 1997;8(2):121–126.
62. Akihisa T, Kimura Y, Tamura T. Cycloartane triterpenes from the fruit peel of Musa sapientum. Phytochemistry. 1998;47(6):1107–1110.
63. Dembitsky VM, Gloriozova TA, Poroikov VV. Antitumor Profile of Carbon-Bridged Steroids (CBS) and Triterpenoids. Mar Drugs. 2021;19(6):324.
64. Wu Q-P, Xie Y-Z, Deng Z, et al. Ergosterol Peroxide Isolated from Ganoderma lucidum Abolishes MicroRNA miR-378-Mediated Tumor Cells on Chemoresistance. PLoS ONE. 2012;7(8):e44579.
65. Ameeramja J, Perumal E. Protocatechuic acid methyl ester ameliorates fluoride toxicity in A549 cells. Food Chem Toxicol Int J Publ Br Ind Biol Res Assoc. 2017;109(Pt 2):941–950.
66. Pugazhendhi D, Pope GS, Darbre PD. Oestrogenic activity of p-hydroxybenzoic acid (common metabolite of paraben esters) and methylparaben in human breast cancer cell lines. J Appl Toxicol JAT. 2005;25(4):301–309.
67. Myrie SB, Steiner RD, Mymin D. Sitosterolemia. In: Adam MP, Feldman J, Mirzaa GM, et al., editors. GeneReviews® [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993 [cited 2025 Sept 1]. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK131810/.
68. Tao C, Shkumatov AA, Alexander ST, et al. Stigmasterol accumulation causes cardiac injury and promotes mortality. Commun Biol. 2019;2:20.
69. Safety of stigmasterol-rich plant sterols as food additive | EFSA [Internet]. 2012 [cited 2025 Sept 1]. Available from: https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/2659.
70. Hlatshwayo S, Thembane N, Krishna SBN, et al. Extraction and Processing of Bioactive Phytoconstituents from Widely Used South African Medicinal Plants for the Preparation of Effective Traditional Herbal Medicine Products: A Narrative Review. Plants Basel Switz. 2025;14(2):206.
71. Kumbhar S, Salunke M, Wakure B. Nanostructured Phytosomes: Revolutionizing Herbal Compound Delivery, Therapeutic Applications, Current Achievements and Future Perspectives. Res J Pharm Technol. 2025;18(4):1899–1905.
72. Rizvi A, Ahmed B, Khan MS, et al. Bioprospecting Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria for Enhancing the Biological Properties and Phytochemical Composition of Medicinally Important Crops. Mol Basel Switz. 2022;27(4):1407.
73. Okagu IU, Ndefo JC, Aham EC, et al. Zanthoxylum Species: A Comprehensive Review of Traditional Uses, Phytochemistry, Pharmacological and Nutraceutical Applications. Mol Basel Switz. 2021;26(13):4023.
74. Khan A, Mishra A, Hasan SM, et al. Biological and medicinal application of Cucumis sativus Linn. - review of current status with future possibilities. J Complement Integr Med. 2022;19(4):843–854.
75. Yadav N, Palkhede JD, Kim S-Y. Anti-Glucotoxicity Effect of Phytoconstituents via Inhibiting MGO-AGEs Formation and Breaking MGO-AGEs. Int J Mol Sci. 2023;24(8):7672.
76. Abass S, Parveen R, Irfan M, et al. Mechanism of antibacterial phytoconstituents: an updated review. Arch Microbiol. 2024;206(7):325.
77. Chidambaram K, Alqahtani T, Alghazwani Y, et al. Medicinal Plants of Solanum Species: The Promising Sources of Phyto-Insecticidal Compounds. J Trop Med. 2022;2022:4952221.
78. Fang L-R, Wang Y-H, Xiong Z-Z, et al. Research progress of nanomaterials in tumor-targeted drug delivery and imaging therapy. OpenNano. 2023;14:100184.
79. Advancements in Nanotechnology for Targeted and Controlled Drug Delivery in Hematologic Malignancies: Shaping the Future of Targeted Therapeutics [Internet]. [cited 2025 Sept 1]. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/2813-0464/4/1/16.
80. Advancements in MXene Composite Materials for Wearable Sensors: A Review [Internet]. [cited 2025 Sept 1]. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/24/13/4092.
81. Trends in Layered Double Hydroxides?Based Advanced Nanocomposites: Recent Progress and Latest Advancements | Request PDF [Internet]. [cited 2025 Sept 1]. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361667946_Trends_in_Layered_Double_Hydroxides-Based_Advanced_Nanocomposites_Recent_Progress_and_Latest_Advancements.
82. (PDF) The Synergy of Artificial Intelligence and Nanotechnology Towards Advancing Innovation and Sustainability- A Mini-Review [Internet]. [cited 2025 Sept 1]. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384480536_The_Synergy_of_Artificial_Intelligence_and_Nanotechnology_Towards_Advancing_Innovation_and_Sustainability-_A_Mini-Review.
83. Feijen J, Hennink WE, Zhong Z. From innovative polymers to advanced nanomedicine: key challenges, recent progress and future perspectives: the second Symposium on Innovative Polymers for Controlled Delivery Suzhou, China, 11–14 September 2012. Nanomed. 2013;8(2):177–180.