Amity University Lucknow Campus.
This report provides a sociological analysis of major racial events that have plagued Indian society in the past 50 years, understanding "racial issues" in the Indian context as encompassing discrimination and conflict based on caste, ethnicity, and tribal identity. Despite constitutional protections, entrenched social inequalities have manifested in numerous instances of discrimination and violence. Major events analyzed include persistent caste- based discrimination and violence against Dalits , ethnic conflicts and discrimination against non- locals and North- East Indians , communal violence such as the 1984 Anti- Sikh Riots and the 2002 Gujarat Riots , discrimination against African nationals , and the recent 2023 Manipur violence. The report examines the documentation of these issues by human rights organizations and the Indian government , the role of social movements in addressing inequality , and academic perspectives on the intersection of caste, ethnicity, and race. It also highlights the views of key researchers like B.R. Ambedkar and Louis Dumont , the impact of these events on the legal, economic, and well- being dimensions of Indian society , and recent developments in the ongoing struggle for social justice. The analysis reveals a persistent pattern of discrimination and conflict, underscoring the deep- rooted nature of social inequalities in India and their significant consequences for social cohesion and national development.
The term "racial issues," when applied to the Indian context, necessitates a completely different understanding due to the intricate social arrangement primarily defined by caste, ethnicity, and tribal identity rather than conventional notions of race based on phenotype. 1 The Government of India, in its reports to the United Nations, has historically maintained a distinction between caste and race as separate categories of discrimination within the Indian Constitution. 1 However, this report adopts a broader framework, in line with the user's query, to analyze discrimination and conflict rooted in caste, ethnicity, and tribal identity as "racial issues." This approach acknowledges that the experiences of marginalization, discrimination, and violence faced by various communities based on these social markers share fundamental similarities with global understandings of racial inequality. The interconnectedness of caste, ethnicity, and tribal identity with both historical and contemporary forms of discrimination is a crucial aspect of this analysis. Scholarly work, such as the concept of "conjugated oppression," further highlights how these social categories intersect with factors like class and gender to create and sustain systems of inequality in India. This report aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of major instances of discrimination and conflict that have occurred in Indian society since 1975. 3 It will delve into the causes, triggers, and multifaceted impacts of these events on the affected communities and the broader societal fabric. 4 The analysis will synthesize findings from a wide array of sources, including reports from human rights organizations 7, government documents 1, academic research 2, and information pertaining to social movements. 11 Furthermore, the report will assess the impact of these racial events on the legal, economic, and well- being dimensions of Indian society 13, and explore recent developments and emerging perspectives in the study of these complex issues. 16 The methodology employed in this report involves a critical review and integration of the provided research material to address the user's comprehensive query. The report is structured thematically, beginning with an overview of major events, followed by an examination of documentation, social movements, academic perspectives, the views of key researchers, the impact on different fields, and concluding with recent developments and emerging perspectives.
The data examined indicates a persistent pattern of discrimination and conflict across various social categories in India, revealing deep-rooted social inequalities that have endured despite legal and constitutional protections. The historical context of colonialism and the entrenched caste system appear to exert a significant influence on contemporary ethnic and racial discrimination. Moreover, economic disparities and political mobilization are evident as key drivers of conflict. The continued presence of these racial issues in India carries significant implications for social cohesion, economic advancement, and the nation's standing within the international community concerning human rights.
Major Events of Racial Discrimination and Conflict (1975- Present)
Caste- based discrimination and violence remain a deeply entrenched reality in India, persisting despite the constitutional abolition of "untouchability" in 1950. This practice continues to affect a substantial portion of the population, particularly Dalits, in rural India. Human Rights Watch reports have documented the ongoing social ostracization experienced by Dalits, which includes segregation in housing, denial of access to shared resources such as wells and temples, and discrimination within educational settings where Dalit children are often relegated to the back of classrooms. 4 This segregation is further reinforced by the state's allocation of resources, which often favors upper- caste neighborhoods in the provision of basic amenities like electricity and water. Violence against Dalits has witnessed a significant escalation since the early 1990s, frequently occurring as a response to the growing Dalit rights movements. 4 Human Rights Watch reports indicate a dramatic increase in such violence during this period. 4 The number of registered cases of crimes and "atrocities" against Scheduled Castes reached a high, with over 90,000 cases reported between 1995 and 1997. 4 Specific incidents, such as the 1978 Villupuram atrocity, the 1992 Bara massacre, and the 1997 Laxmanpur Bathe massacre, along with numerous other instances, vividly illustrate the brutal nature of caste- based violence. 4 Upper- caste militias have played a significant role in perpetrating this violence, and allegations of state complicity, particularly involving the police, have also surfaced. Beyond physical violence, social and economic boycotts are employed as tools to maintain the low status of Dalits, punishing them for any perceived defiance of caste norms. 4 Even in the context of natural disasters, such as the 2001Gujarat earthquake, caste discrimination has manifested in the unequal distribution of relief and rehabilitation resources, with Dalits and Muslims often receiving less adequate support compared to upper- caste populations. Furthermore, colorism, the preference for lighter skin tones, has historical roots in the caste system, with darker skin traditionally associated with lower castes. 19 The intersection of caste and gender further exacerbates discrimination, with Dalit women facing specific forms of violence and marginalization, including sexual abuse. The North- East region of India has a long and complex history of ethnic relations marked by various conflicts. 3 This region has witnessed violence and discrimination directed towards non- local populations, including Hindi, Bengali, and Nepali speakers, in states such as Assam, Manipur, and Meghalaya. 3 Numerous incidents of killings and attacks on these non- indigenous communities have been documented. 3 More recently, ethnic violence between different tribal groups and the dominant Meitei community in Manipur has escalated dramatically, particularly in May 2023. This conflict has resulted in a high number of deaths, widespread displacement affecting over 60,000 people, and extensive destruction of property. Allegations of state bias and complicity in the violence have also emerged. 26 The historical roots of ethnic conflict in the North- East are often traced back to factors such as migration, competition for limited resources like land and jobs, and struggles for political dominance. Separatist and autonomy movements have also been a recurring feature in this region. People from North- East India also face significant racial discrimination when they migrate to other parts of the country, particularly in urban areas. 3 This discrimination often manifests as prejudice, verbal abuse through racial slurs referencing their appearance, and even physical attacks. 3 North- East Indians have reported facing discrimination in finding housing and are often subjected to cultural profiling. 3 A study conducted by the North East Support Centre & Helpline (NESC&H) indicated that a high percentage of North- East individuals face racial discrimination in major metro cities. 3 In response to this issue, the Indian government has issued directives to states and union territories to arrest those committing atrocities against North- Easterners under the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act. 3 Specific incidents of violence and killings targeting North- East individuals have occurred in cities like Delhi (e.g., the Nido Taniam killing and assaults on Manipuri women), Bengaluru, and Gurgaon. Furthermore, perceived discrimination has been shown to negatively impact the self- esteem and academic motivation of North- East youth. Communal violence with significant racial dimensions has also plagued India. The 1984 Anti- Sikh Riots, which followed the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, stand as a stark example. 9 This organized violence, primarily targeting the Sikh community, resulted in the deaths of thousands, widespread displacement, and massive destruction of Sikh- owned property. Allegations of collusion between political officials and the police in the violence have persisted for decades. The quest for justice for the victims has been long and arduous, with few perpetrators facing conviction. 28 The riots have had a lasting impact on the Sikh community's well- being, leading to significant psychological trauma and substantial economic losses. Similarly, the 2002 Gujarat Riots, which targeted the Muslim community, represent another major instance of communal violence with racial undertones. 22 Following the Godhra train fire, widespread violence erupted against Muslims, resulting in a high number of deaths, injuries, displacement, and destruction of property. Allegations of state inaction and even complicity in the violence were prominent. 48 Sexual violence against Muslim women was a particularly horrific feature of these riots. 46 The Muslim community continues to grapple with the long- term psychological impact of this violence, including children who witnessed or experienced the atrocities. The riots also caused significant economic losses for both the Muslim community and the state of Gujarat. Foreign nationals, particularly those of African descent, have also faced discrimination in India. 3 African students, in particular, report widespread discrimination from their peers, threats of violence, workplace discrimination leading to lower pay and difficulty finding part- time jobs, and housing issues including difficulty in finding accommodation and having to pay higher rents. 3 Several incidents of violence and even murder targeting African students have occurred in cities like Delhi and Bangalore, drawing condemnation from African students and diplomatic missions. 3 Allegations of discrimination by police and government authorities, including racial profiling and raids, have also been reported. These racist attitudes are often attributed to widespread ignorance about the African continent and color- based discrimination prevalent in India. The 2023 Manipur violence represents a recent and ongoing instance of severe ethnic conflict in India, unfolding between the Meitei and Kuki- Zo communities. 3 This violence was primarily triggered by a dispute over affirmative action measures, specifically the demand for Scheduled Tribe status by the dominant Meitei community, coupled with long- standing ethnic grievances. The conflict has resulted in a high death toll, the displacement of over 60,000 people, and the destruction of numerous homes and religious structures. Allegations of state bias and complicity in the violence have been prominent 26, leading to concerns about a breakdown of law and order, as noted by the Supreme Court. 26 The violence has had a significant economic impact on Manipur, including a contraction in GST collections and disruption across various sectors. The affected communities have also experienced severe psychological trauma. 77 In response to the escalating crisis, President's Rule was imposed in Manipur in 2024.
Documenting Racial Discrimination in India
International human rights organizations have extensively documented racial discrimination in India. Human Rights Watch reports have characterized caste discrimination as a form of "hidden apartheid," detailing instances of violence and systemic discrimination against Dalits. 4 Amnesty International has also consistently reported on human rights issues in India, including violence and entrenched discrimination faced by Dalits, Adivasis, and religious minorities, particularly Muslims. These organizations have also highlighted the ethnic violence in Manipur and the alleged failure of authorities to adequately protect minority communities 8, raising concerns about the prevailing impunity for hate crimes and violence against marginalized groups. The Indian government has also addressed the issue of discrimination in its reports to international bodies. In its submissions to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), the government has acknowledged the continued significance of the caste system and the discrimination faced by Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. 1 However, the government has consistently maintained that "caste" cannot be equated with "race" or "descent" as defined under the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD), as these grounds are mentioned separately in the Indian Constitution. Toaddress discrimination, the government has established various mechanisms, including the National Commission for Women, the National Commission for Minorities, the National Commission for Scheduled Castes, and the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, tasked with safeguarding the rights of these vulnerable sections of society. 1 Additionally, the government has commissioned reports and inquiries into specific instances of violence, such as the Nanavati Commission, which investigated the 1984 Anti- Sikh Riots. In its submissions to CERD, India has reiterated its stance that caste is distinct from race and descent within the context of the Convention. The government has detailed the constitutional provisions and affirmative action programs implemented to address discrimination faced by marginalized communities. 1 Indian representatives and academics have presented arguments to support the view that caste and race are sociologically distinct categories with different origins and manifestations.
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Organization/Body |
Focus of Documentation |
Key Findings/ Stances
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Relevant Snippet IDs |
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Human Rights Watch |
Caste discrimination, violence against Dalits, ethnic violence
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Caste discrimination as Human Rights Caste "hidden apartheid, discrimination, systemic violence Watch and against Dalits, discrimination, ethnic violence allegations of state complicity |
4 |
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Amnesty International
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Human rights in India
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Violence and discrimination against Dalits, Amnesty Human rights Adivasis, religious minorities, International in India impunity for hate crimes, ethnic violence in Manipur |
8 |
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UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD)
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India's reports on racial discrimination
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Acknowledgment of caste UN Committee on India's reports discrimination, distinction the Elimination of between caste Racial on racial and race, Discrimination constitutional (CERD) provisions and affirmative action |
1 |
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Government of India (Nanavati Commission) |
1984 Anti- Sikh Riots |
Inquiry into the riots, police negligence, Government of 1984 Anti- Sikh recommendations for relief and India (Nanavati rehabilitation |
9 |
Social Movements Addressing Racial Inequality
India has witnessed a multitude of social movements dedicated to addressing racial inequality, particularly concerning caste discrimination. The Dalit Movement has been a central force in fighting for the rights and dignity of Dalits and against the practice of untouchability, with iconic figures like B.R. Ambedkar at its forefront. In Tamil Nadu, the Dravidian Movement championed the cause of non- Brahmin self- respect and social equality 11, while the Self-Respect Movement aimed to dismantle Brahmin domination and foster self- identification among marginalized castes. The Temple Entry Movement played a crucial role in challenging the exclusion of Dalits from Hindu temples. The Satyashodhak Samaj, founded by Jyotirao Phule, worked towards the social and educational upliftment of lower castes and women. The Justice Movement sought to eradicate discriminatory measures inherent in society and empower excluded groups. The post- Emergency period (1975- 1977) saw the rise of human rights movements in India, which included a focus on the rights of Dalits alongside concerns for civil liberties. The Dalit Panther Movement also emerged as a significant force against caste oppression. Movements have also addressed ethnic and tribal rights and discrimination. Various ethnic movements in regions like Assam, Punjab, North- East states, West Bengal, and Kashmir have sought to assert the distinct identities of minority communities. Tribal movements have often arisen in response to issues of displacement and loss of traditional livelihoods. The North East Support Centre & Helpline (NESC&H) was established to specifically address the increasing prejudice and attacks faced by people from North- East India. 3 Incidents of discrimination against African students have also sparked protests and activism. 3 More recently, caste and ethnic groups have increasingly mobilized around issues related to reservations in education and employment. These social movements have played a vital role in raising awareness about racial inequality, advocating for legal and policy reforms, and mobilizing marginalized communities to demand their rights. 12 However, these movements have also faced significant challenges, including resistance from dominant groups, state repression, and internal divisions. 12 The complex interplay of caste, class, and communal biases further complicates their efforts. 12 The ideologies and actions of historical social reformers like Mahatma Gandhi and B.R. Ambedkar have profoundly influenced these movements, providing both inspiration and frameworks for action.
Academic Analyses and Scholarly Perspectives on Racial Issues
Academic scholarship on racial issues in India presents a complex and evolving understanding of caste, ethnicity, and their relationship to the concept of race. A significant debate exists on whether caste is analogous to race, with some scholars proposing the concept of "racial caste" to highlight the systemic oppression and discrimination associated with both categories. Historical analyses reveal the influence of colourism, a preference for lighter skin tones, which has deep roots in colonialism in India. 105 The British colonial rule played a crucial role in shaping modern constructions of race and caste in India through census classifications and policies. The caste system itself has undergone significant evolution over time, becoming increasingly rigid with the emergence of numerous sub- castes known as jatis. 4 Religion and prevailing social norms have historically played a significant role in reinforcing the caste system. 109 It is also important to note that the practice of caste has exhibited regional variations across India. Various theoretical frameworks have been employed to understand racial issues in India. Sociological perspectives, particularly those of Louis Dumont and Max Weber, view caste as a status hierarchy primarily based on the religious and ideological concepts of purity and pollution. 10 In contrast, socioeconomic perspectives, championed by scholars like Bernard Berreman, McKim Marriott, and Nicholas Dirks, emphasize the economic and political factors that drive and sustain the caste system. 10 The concept of "conjugated oppression" offers another lens, highlighting how class- based relations and oppression along the lines of race, ethnicity, gender, and caste are interconnected and mutually reinforcing in the context of capitalism. Social constructivist approaches are also utilized to analyse the dynamics of ethnic conflict. Ongoing debates and evolving perspectives continue to shape the academic understanding of racial issues in India. There is scholarly work examining the impact of neoliberal economic policies on the prevalence of caste violence. 115 Research has also challenged the direct link often assumed between colourism and discrimination in hiring practices. 105 Studies exploring the psychological dimensions of caste prejudice and its connection to social identity are also emerging. 116 Furthermore, there is a growing recognition of caste discrimination as a global phenomenon, particularly within the South Asian diaspora, leading to discussions in international forums. Critically, some academic analyses have examined how narratives surrounding caste in Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) initiatives can inadvertently create bias against Hindu communities.
Key Researchers and Their Views
Several key researchers have significantly contributed to the understanding of racial issues in India. B.R. Ambedkar, a towering figure in modern Indian history, was a social reformer, jurist, and the principal architect of India's Constitution. As a member of a marginalized caste, he relentlessly fought for the eradication of the caste system and advocated for affirmative action policies to uplift Dalits. 11 Ambedkar viewed caste not merely as a physical barrier but as a deeply ingrained "state of the mind," emphasizing the need for cultural transformation alongside legal and policy changes. Louis Dumont, a prominent sociologist, is known for his structuralist and hierarchical interpretation of the caste system. His seminal work, "Homo Hierarchicus," emphasizes the ideological underpinnings of caste, particularly the concepts of purity and pollution that underpin the social hierarchy. 10 While influential, Dumont's theory has been critiqued for its primary focus on traditional India and its limited engagement with the complexities of modern Indian society. G.S. Guryev, another key sociologist, identified six defining characteristics of caste: the segmentation of society into hereditary groups, a hierarchical system, restrictions on social interaction between castes, civil and religious disabilities imposed on lower castes, the lack of unrestricted choice of profession, and endogamy. However, Ghurye's model has faced scholarly criticism for its reliance on census reports produced during the British colonial era and for aligning with prevalent orientalist perspectives on caste. Ashutosh Varshney is a scholar renowned for his work on ethnic conflict and the role of civil society in India. 48 His research has explored the historical roots of ethnic conflict in different regions of India, highlighting how the primary axes of conflict can vary between religion and caste/tribal identities depending on the specific historical context. Andre Beteille, a distinguished social anthropologist, has extensively written on caste and social inequality in India. 10 Beteille has offered critiques of Dumont's hierarchical view of caste and has emphasized the importance of studying the transformations of caste in contemporary India. Dipankar Gupta, an academic, has presented arguments against the direct equation of caste and race. He points to the absence of a consistent phenotypical resemblance within caste groups and the observation that discrimination is not unidirectional, with various castes exhibiting prejudice towards each other. Nicholas Dirks, an anthropologist, offers a historical perspective, arguing that the caste system as it is understood today is not an immutable survival from ancient India but rather a product of the historical interactions between colonial powers and Indian society. Sonalde Desai's research examines the complexities of caste in 21st century India, focusing on the contrasting narratives of caste as a rigid status hierarchy versus a system of ongoing inequality and 10 exploitation. A central point of divergence among these researchers is whether caste can be considered analogous to race. While the Indian government and some academics argue for the distinct nature of these categories 1, others, particularly within Western academia and among Dalit activists, draw parallels between the systemic oppression associated with both caste and race. 100 Despite these differences, there is a general consensus on the historical and ongoing reality of deep social inequalities and discrimination based on caste and ethnicity in India. 2 Researchers also widely acknowledge the significant role of historical factors, including colonialism and the traditional caste system, in shaping the contemporary landscape of racial issues in India. 106 Theories like. Dumont's have faced criticism for their emphasis on ideology over material realities and for their limited engagement with modern India. 10 Similarly, Ghurye's reliance on colonial- era data has been a point of critique. 89 The "racial caste" explanation itself has also been 101 subjects to scholarly scrutiny.
Impact of Racial Events on Different Fields
Racial events in India have exerted a profound influence across various domains, including law, economy, and well- being. Legally, the Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, abolished untouchability under Article 17 and enshrined provisions against discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth in Articles 15 and 16. 1 Specific legislation, such as the Untouchability Offences Act of 1955 (later renamed the Protection of Civil Liberties Act) and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989 (and its amendment in 2015), were enacted to further address caste- based discrimination and violence. 99 Affirmative action policies, including reservation systems for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs), were implemented in education, employment, and political representation to uplift historically marginalized groups. 6 The judiciary, particularly the Supreme Court, has intervened in numerous cases related to caste discrimination and communal violence, as exemplified by landmark rulings in the Best Bakery case and the Bilkis Bano case concerning the 2002 Gujarat Riots. Despite these legal frameworks, the effective implementation and enforcement of anti- discrimination laws continue to face challenges due to factors such as police corruption, deeply ingrained caste biases, and procedural complexities. 4 Debates and legal challenges persist regarding the precise scope and application of these laws, including the contentious issue of whether caste falls under the definition of "descent" in international conventions like ICERD. 1 Legal changes and societal debates surrounding religious conversions also have significant implications for the rights of religious minorities. 22 Major episodes of communal violence, such as the 1984 Anti- Sikh Riots, have led to the formation of government commissions to investigate the events, although the pursuit of justice for the victims has often been protracted and faced numerous obstacles. 9 More recently, the 2023 Manipur violence prompted legal responses including concerns raised by the Supreme Court and the imposition of President's Rule in the state. Economically, racial events have inflicted significant losses on India. Communal riots, such as the 2002 Gujarat Riots, the 1984 Anti- Sikh Riots, and the 2023 Manipur Violence, have resulted in substantial damage to businesses and property, and have caused widespread disruption of economic activities, impacting production, sales, and livelihoods. 9 Caste- based discrimination continues to contribute to the underutilization of talent and human resources by limiting access to education and employment opportunities for lower castes. 20 This discrimination also impacts wages and employment, with individuals from lower castes often facing lower pay and fewer opportunities for upward mobility. 2 Research suggests that even early childhood experiences of ethnic conflict can have long- lasting effects on economic behaviour, influencing decisions such as lending practices. Significant economic disparities persist between different caste and religious groups in India. 2 Some studies also indicate that economic growth, while generally positive, can sometimes exacerbate existing inequalities and even incite religious conflict. The impact of racial events on the well- being of individuals and communities in India is profound. Survivors and witnesses of communal violence, such as the 1984 Anti- Sikh Riots, the 2002 Gujarat Riots, and the 2023 Manipur Violence, often suffer from severe psychological trauma, including post- traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and sleep disturbances. 32 Displacement caused by violence leads to social suffering, including 65 loneliness, separation from loved ones, and deprivation. Experiences of discrimination, whether based on caste, ethnicity, or origin, can significantly impact self- esteem, confidence, and overall mental health. 15 Health disparities are also closely linked to caste and ethnic discrimination, with marginalized communities often facing limited access to healthcare and experiencing poorer health outcomes. 7 The phenomenon of internalized colorism, often influenced by societal beauty standards, can also negatively affect the mental health and well- being of individuals. 130 Women from lower castes are particularly vulnerable, facing increased risks of domestic 13 violence and sexual exploitation.
Recent Developments and Emerging Perspectives
Recent years have witnessed continued challenges related to racial issues in India. There have been reports of ongoing violence and discrimination against minorities, particularly Muslims, under the current political climate. 16 Issues such as "love jihad" narratives and the implementation of anti- conversion laws have raised concerns regarding the rights and freedoms of religious minorities. 22 The ethnic violence in Manipur, which began in 2023 and has continued into 2024, highlights the complex and persistent nature of ethnic tensions in the North- East. 3 UN experts have voiced alarm over reports of attacks on minorities, media, and civil society in the lead- up to elections, urging corrective action. 138 Furthermore, there has been a noted rise in online hostility and hate speech targeting South Asian communities, particularly in the context of political events like the US elections. 139 A recent study has also highlighted significant disparities in life expectancy between different castes in India, suggesting the 141 presence of systemic discrimination akin to racism. The study of racial issues in India is also witnessing emerging perspectives. There is a growing global recognition of caste discrimination as a significant human rights concern, particularly within the South Asian diaspora, leading to increased attention in international forums and legal systems. 101 Research is increasingly focusing on the intersectionality of caste with other crucial identities such as gender and religion, seeking to understand the compounded forms of discrimination faced by individuals belonging to multiple marginalized groups. 17 The development of a critical psychology of caste is emerging as a distinct field of study. 17 Additionally, some analyses have critically examined how caste narratives within DEI initiatives might inadvertently perpetuate bias against Hindu communities. 117 Studies continue to explore the long- term mental health consequences of historical communal violence on affected populations. 41 Research also delves into the economic impacts of riots and other forms of racial conflict, examining their effects on 52 various economic activities, including lending behaviour.
CONCLUSION
The past 50 years have been marked by significant racial events that have deeply affected Indian society. These events, encompassing caste- based discrimination and violence, ethnic conflicts in the North- East, discrimination against North- East Indians in other regions, horrific instances of communal violence like the 1984 and 2002 riots, discrimination against foreign nationals, and the recent devastating violence in Manipur, underscore the persistent challenges of achieving true equality and social justice. Caste- based discrimination and violence against Dalits remain a pervasive issue despite constitutional and legal prohibitions. The North- East continues to grapple with complex ethnic conflicts rooted in historical grievances, migration, and competition for resources, while North-East Indians face prejudice and discrimination in other parts of the country. Major communal conflagrations have left deep scars on inter- community relations and have had long- lasting psychological and economic consequences. Even foreign nationals, particularly those of African descent, have experienced significant racism in India. The ongoing violence in Manipur serves as a stark reminder of the fragility of social harmony and the potential for escalation of ethnic tensions. The documentation of these racial issues by international human rights organizations and the Indian government, though sometimes differing in framing and interpretation, highlights the reality of discrimination and conflict. Social movements have played a crucial role in raising awareness, advocating for change, and mobilizing marginalized communities, yet they continue to face considerable challenges. Academic analyses offer diverse perspectives on the history, evolution, and theoretical underpinnings of racial issues in India, with ongoing debates and emerging areas of research constantly shaping our understanding. Key researchers have provided invaluable insights into the complexities of caste, ethnicity, and race, contributing to a deeper comprehension of these multifaceted phenomena. The impact of racial events on law, economy, and well- being has been profound, shaping legal frameworks, causing significant economic losses, and inflicting lasting psychological trauma on affected individuals and communities. Recent developments, including ongoing violence, new forms of discrimination, and emerging research perspectives, underscore the continued relevance and evolving nature of racial issues in India. In conclusion, the analysis of the past 50 years reveals a multifaceted and persistent struggle for equality and social justice in India, requiring sustained and comprehensive efforts across various sectors to address the deeply rooted issues of racial discrimination and conflict.
REFERENCES
Miloy Banerjee*, Major Racial Events Plaguing Indian Society in the Past 50 Years: A Sociological Analysis, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2025, Vol 3, Issue 5, 2075-2087 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15395854
10.5281/zenodo.15395854
