Phytochemistry, Pharmacological Potential, and Traditional Uses of Mahua Species: A Comprehensive Review

Madhuca is also called Mahua or butternut tree, belonging to sapotaceae family. It is about 17m in height. It is gifted with many chemical ingredients which are responsible for various medicinal properties. It consists of terpenoids, proteins, starch, anthraquinone glycosides, phenolic compounds, mucilage, cardiac glycosides, tannins and saponins. The bark can be used for phlegm, itching, swelling, fractures, snake-bite, diarrhoea, chronic tonsilitis, leprosy and fever and rheumatism. It has been reported that mahua possesses wound healing, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer activity and antidiabetic activities (1). Plants generate a diverse range of bioactive compounds and have been a valuable source of Nutrition and pharmaceuticals industries. In industrialized nations where access to contemporary medications is more common, these are also utilized for primary healthcare in rural areas of developing nations. The usage of plants as a source of medicine has been passed down through the generations and is still a vital part of the medical systems in both India and other countries. The necessity to look into better, more potent, and safer herbal medications for usage by the general people has been highlighted in the ayurvedic treatments of numerous disorders (2). The field of herbal medicine has grown exponentially in the past few years, and due to their origin and low side effects, these medications are becoming more and more popular in both developed and developing nations. It is extensively available in the nations of South Asia and largely found in India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal (3). Mahua is a frost-resistant species that can grow in marginal areas of dry tropical and subtropical forests up to an altitude of 1200-1800 m, in India. It requires mean annual temperature of 2-460C, mean annual rainfall ranging from 550-1500 mm and mean annual humidity from 40-90 percent. Mahua trees are distributed from India to other Asian countries like The Philippines, Pakistan, Sri Lanka to Australia. It can be found scattered in pasture lands in central India, and on river banks in semi-evergreen forests. The tree grows on a wide variety of soils but thrives best on sandy soil. It also grows on shallow, boulder, clayey and calcareous soils In India, large quantities of mahua trees are found in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan and the evaluated annual production of mahua flowers is 45000 million tonnes during. The yield of mahua flowers varies from 80-320 kg for every tree. Madhya Pradesh is the most astounding mahua developing state with average trade volume of 5,730 metric tonnes and worth about Indian rupees 8.4 million (4).

1. Madhuca Longifolia

Synonym(S) Madhuca longifolia koen.

 Varieties: Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) J.F. Macb. var. longifolia, and Madhuca longifolia (Koenig) J.F. Macb. var. latifolia (Roxb.) Cheval.

Historical background: (5)

Since long ago, mahua tree has been a source for various edible products and also in medicinal purposes. Mahua has been worshipped by tribals because it's all parts are used for the well-being of humans. The flower of Madhuca longifolia is used as a flavouring agent in dishes and rice. Pickles are also made from mahua flower. It is also used as feed for the cattle. Mahua is used by the lactating mothers as it increases the milk production. Tribals believe in conserving mahua as it is sacred for them and the mahua drink comes in the culture of tribals

Botanical description

The M. longifolia tree can grow to a height of 15-18m. The tree reaches maturity at the age of 8 to 15 and can produce fruit for a maximum of sixty years. The lanceolate leaves of this tree are 10-30 cm long, narrower at both ends and glabrous with a characteristic nerve pattern. The anthers are 16-2 seriate subsessile, with 3 teeth on the lips, thick, as well as leathery. The tiny, meaty flowers have a creamy white color. When ripe, fruits are ovoid, meaty, and 2-6 cm long, with a greenish-yellow color. Sugars, vitamins A, C, E, thiamine, riboflavin, Fe, Mg, Cu, anthocyanins, betains, and salts of succinic and malic acid are all present in flowers. Bark is used to treat bleeding gums, rheumatism, ulcers, as well as itching. For sprains, irritations, and inflammations, it serves as a useful treatment. Mahua seeds are valuable economically because they are a rich source of eatable lipids

Taxonomy & Nomenclature

Binomial Name: Madhuca Longifolia

Kingdom: Plantae

Order: Ericaleae                                                  

Family: Sapotaceae

Subfamily: Caesalpiniodeae

Tribes: Caesalpinieae

Genus: Madhuca

Species: longifolia

Flower:

Flowers during March- April and fruits during April-May. Mahua is a large, shady, deciduous tree doting much of the central Indian landscape, both wild and cultivated (Yadav). Flowering, cultivation, and collection: The flowering period occurs annually from March to June. India has a diverse range of climatic conditions that are favourable for growth as well as cultivation of various types of trees. These conditions range from hot to cold and from humid to dry throughout different regions. Nevertheless, M. longifolia is not deliberately cultivated and instead exists as naturally occurring trees. (3)

Composition of Flower:

Flowers of this versatile tree species are a good source of sugars which make it an important constituent of indigenous and modern alcoholic beverages. Further, the mahua flowers contains a good amount of Vitamin-C which is responsible for its antioxidant activity. Flowers also contain a good amount of minerals such as calcium and phosphorus with a good amount of carotene which acts as a precursor of Vitamin-A. Several studies have also been done to study the medicinal properties of mahua flowers such as antihelmenthic, antibacterial, analgesic, hepatoprotective, antioxidant and anticancer. It is observed that the flowers are used as tonic, analgesic and diuretic. Flowers have also been traditionally used as cooling agent, tonic, aphrodisiac, and astringent, demulcent and for the treatment of various diseases such as helminths, acute and chronic tonsillitis, pharyngitis as well as bronchitis. Further, fomentation with dried flowers produces relief in orchid, decoction used as expectorant; beneficial in impotence due to general debility when administered with milk. (4)

Phytoconstituents of Madhuca longifolia (6)

Pharmacological Activity of Madhuca Longifolia (7)

1. Anti-inflammatory activity: The flowers are having anti-inflammatory properties to treat tonsillitis, helminths, pharyngitis, bronchitis, impotence, inflammation, and eczema. They are further used as a demulcent, astringent, aphrodisiac, and cooling agent. Eye ailments can be treated with flowers. Mahua seeds were effective at reducing inflammation in cotton pellet granuloma. Saponins of mahua and their ethanolic extract are very effective in inflammation, cotton pellet granuloma & carrageenan-induced hind paw edema models were used.
2. Antifungal activity: Stems of the mahua plant are useful for therapy of debilitation, diabetes mellitus, arthritis, tonsillitis (strep throat), snakebite, tuberculosis (phthisis), cholera, paralysis (debility), oligospermia, piles, & rhinosinusitis.  Cake of Mahua oil seeds is defatted to produce a byproduct that contains saponins, which cause antifungal activity. For plant pathogenic fungi, inhibitory doses were found to be between 500 and 2000 ppm. The Trichoderma viride fungus was harmed by saponins' mechanism of action, which involved causing cell contents to seep out.
3. Antibacterial activity:  Madhuca longifolia flowers is used as a tonic, demulcent, aphrodisiac, and cooling agent, and to cure bronchitis, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis. In Bihar, LATTA is made from roasted maize grain and mahua flowers to treat arthritis pain. By using the disc diffusion method, it was shown that the bark of the Mahua has substantial antibacterial activity in contrast to E.coli, Bacillus subtilis,. Staphylococcus epidermidis, S.aureus, & E.coli. Additionally, it is proved that methanolic extract showed effective antibacterial action.
4. Wound healing activity: The fruit's interior portion is used to make cakes, while the fruit's outer portion is eaten raw. The fruits are used as an astringent, in the treatment of tonsillitis, and as a lotion for chronic ulcers. Madhuca longifolia oil is used in cooking, making margarine, as a hair oil, making soap, and lighting lights. (7)
5. Dermatological use: The decoction of the bark is useful in itching and ulceration, the oil is obtained from the seed, which is useful in the several allergic disorders. It is also used as laxatives.(6)
6. Analgesic activity: The nociceptive methods like tail flick, hot plate and chemical writhing methods were used to screen the analgesic effects in aqueous and alcoholic extract of flowers of M. longifolia and graded doses of both aqueous and alcoholic extract of M. longifolia produced dose dependent analgesic effect in all the methods carried out either in rats or mice.The aerial part of crude methanolic extract of M. indica possesses analgesic activity and it was evaluated using acetic acid-induced nociception response.
7. Neuropharmcological activity: The neuropharmcological activity has been studied from the methanolic extract and a triterpene, compound isolated from the leaves of Madhuca longifolia using phenobarbitone as a standard. Sleeping time was increased as well as there is a significant reduction in motor activity and marble burying activity which confirm its sedative nature. (6)
8. Spasmolytic activity: Both the saponins that are found in seeds of Madhuca leaves have been shown to have notable spasmolytic efficacy in isolated guinea pig ileum.
9. Analgesic activity: Both alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Madhuca longifolia leaves possess analgesic activity. Consideration of the decreased number of abdominal constrictions results in analgesic activity. When a comparison is done between the control group mice & mice treated with alcoholic (methanolic). extract of madhuca longifolia shows a positive analgesic effect. Anti-analgesia is the agent that causes loss of sensation of pain & hence mahua leaves playsan important role in reducing pain.
10. Anti-epileptic activity: The term epilepsy is the chronic condition that is often associated with consciousness-altering brain dysfunction. Mahua heartwood and bark methanolic extract showed anticonvulsant properties. Results show that Madhuca longifolia contains a number of biologically active components that may be involved in Madhuca longifolia anticonvulsant properties. Methanolic preparations of Madhuca longifolia leaves also exhibit sedation and drowsiness. Mahua plant contains unique biological components that have severe anti-convulsant and antiseizure properties.
11. Anti-tumour activity: The Ehrlich Ascites Carcinoma (EAC) in mice could be treated with an acetone extract of Madhuca longifolia leaves.
12. Anthelminthic activity: The ethanolic and methanolic extracts of madhuca flower show anthelminthic properties against the Indian earthworm Pheretima posthuma and methanolic extracts of madhuca flower also shows a strong anthelminthic property. (7)

2. Madhuca Indica

Historical background:

Medicinal plants have a long history of natural remedy in traditional medicine. Ethnobotanical information on medicinal plants and their usage by indigenous cultures is useful in the conservation of traditional cultures, biodiversity, to promote health care and drug development. The world health organization (WHO) is now focusing attention towards the developing countries to encourage them to use herbal medicine, which they have been traditionally, used for centuries. Madhuca is an important medicinal plant belonging to the Sapotaceae family

Botanical Description:

Mahua is a medium sized to large growing deciduous shady tree that grows about 16-20 meters tall. The plant is found mostly growing widely under dry tropical and sub-tropical climatic conditions. The plant grows well on rocky, gravely, saline and sodic soils, even in pockets of soil between crevices of barren rock. The plant has deep, strong taproot and short, stout trunk, 80 cm in diameter. The crown is rounded with multiple branches. The bark posses yellowish grey to dark brown color vertically cracked and wrinkled; exfoliating in thin scales and has milky substance inside. Leaves are thick, leathery having 10-30 cm length, lanceolate, narrowed at both ends, glabrous distinctly nerved and clustered at the end of the branches. It excludes a milky sap when broken. Young leaves are pinkish and wooly underneath.

Taxonomy & Nomenclature

Botanical Name: Madhuca indica

Family: Sapotaceae

Subfamily: Caesalpinioideae

Tribes: Caesalpinieae

Genus: Madhuca

Species: Indica

Order: Ericaleae

Geographical distribution:

The Madhuca indica commonly known as Mahua. Economically as well as nutritionally, it is an important tree, growing throughout the subtropical region of the indo Pakistan subcontinent. Largely Mahua trees are found in the Indian states such as Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, North Circars, Deccan and Karnataka. (8)

Morphological Characterization of Madhuca indica

Habit – Large ever green deciduous trees.

Habitat – Common in forest area.

Stem – Bark black, grayish or ash colored, longitudinally fissured .

Leaves – Coriaceous, elliptic or elliptic, obtuse or sub-acuminate.

Flowers – Creamy-white, dense, axillary clusters at the end of the branches.

Fruit – Berries are ovoid, fleshy and yellow when ripe.

Seeds – 1-4 seeded, seeds are ovoid in shape smooth, shining, brownish-black in color. (9)

Microscopical Characters

Parts and Microscopical character

Stem: Stems of Madhuca indica consists thin layered cell cork, cortex, epidermis, xylem, phloem, pith.

Petiole: Petiole consist vascular bundle, xylem, phloem, endodermis, pericycle and pith

Leaf: Leaf T.S. consists cork, upper and lower epidermis, xylem, phloem and pith.

Trichomes: Leaves consists uniseriate type of trichomes and covering trichomes

Stomata: Both lower and upper surface consist paracytic stomata (8)

Phytoconstituents of Madhuca indica   (10)