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Abstract

Cancer is a major cause of mortality and reduced quality of life worldwide. Despite advances in conventional cancer therapies, challenges such as systemic toxicity, drug resistance, and limited specificity continue to hinder effective treatment. Early cancer detection and targeted drug delivery are essential for improving therapeutic outcomes. Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions by enhancing diagnostic precision and enabling site-specific drug delivery with reduced adverse effects. Nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, polymeric micelles, liposomes, and other nanoparticle-based systems have demonstrated improved pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties in cancer diagnosis and therapy. This review highlights commonly used nanomaterials in cancer management and discusses recent advances in cancer nanotechnology, with particular emphasis on nanoparticle systems currently in clinical use or under development for cancer imaging and therapeutic applications..

Keywords

Cancer, Nanotechnology, liposomes, quantum dots, polymeric micelles, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers

Introduction

19.3 million new instances of cancer were reported worldwide, according to estimates from the Global Cancer Observatory (GLOBOCAN).[1] Cancer is still one of the main causes of death and places a significant strain on healthcare systems. [²] It is mainly caused by mutations in genes that control cell division and growth. The fundamental instructions required for regular cellular activity are encoded in these genes. [³] Uncontrolled cell growth, cell transformation, diminished ability for apoptosis (programmed cell death), invasion, angiogenesis and metastasis are the main characteristics of cancer. [4]

Conventional cancer treatment modalities including chemotherapy, radiotherapy and surgical intervention remain the primary approaches for managing malignancies. However, these therapies are frequently associated with significant limitations such as the nonspecific systemic distribution of anticancer agents, suboptimal pharmaceutical accumulation at the tumor site an additionally inadequate real-time monitoring of therapeutic efficacy.[5] According to estimates, over 90% of anticancer drugs demonstrate poor bioavailability and unfavourable pharmacokinetic profiles. Therefore, it is essential to develop advanced drug delivery systems that can enhance bioavailability, optimize pharmacokinetic properties, and selectively deliver active drug molecules to the target site while minimizing damage to healthy cells.[6]

This review explores the application of nanostructures to improve the therapeutic efficacy of chemotherapeutic drug delivery systems and their potential use as molecular diagnostic tools for detecting and monitoring cancer progression.

Nanotechnology-based platforms for cancer treatment:

Nanotechnology currently constitutes promising interdisciplinary approach in cancer therapy, with nanomedicine enabling improved diagnostics and targeted drug delivery through biocompatible nanocomposites.[7] Approved nanomedicine-based cancer therapies predominantly involve liposomal systems and drug conjugates incorporating proteins, polymers, or antibodies. These platforms are primarily developed to enhance the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles of therapeutic agents through passive targeting approaches.[8] Nano systems offer several distinctive advantages over traditional cancer treatments: (i) they can function as therapeutic or diagnostic agents themselves and are capable of carrying a substantial drug load; (ii) they can be linked to multivalent targeting ligands, allowing for precise and high-affinity binding to cancer cells; (iii) they can deliver multiple drugs simultaneously, facilitating combination therapy and (iv) they have the ability to circumvent conventional drug resistance pathways. Utilizing both passive and active targeting mechanisms, these nanocarriers enhance drug accumulation within tumor cells while reducing exposure to healthy tissues, thereby maximizing therapeutic outcomes and minimizing systemic toxicity.[9]

 

 

 

Fig:1 represented of the multifaceted applications of nanotechnology in cancer research and treatment.

 

Nanotechnology offers a range of tools applicable to both early cancer detection and therapeutic intervention, including the following:

 

 

 

 

Fig:2 represented schematic overview of nanotechnology-driven strategies used in cancer therapeutics

 

Liposomes:

Liposomes are spherical, soft-matter particles made up of an interior hydrophilic compartment is enveloped by an assortment of phospholipid bilayers.[10] Phospholipids are amphiphilic compounds composed of hydrophilic head groups and hydrophobic tail regions, enabling their spontaneous self-assembly into liposomal structures in aqueous environments through hydrophobic and other non-covalent interaction. These lipids can be either partially or entirely derived from natural sources. The physicochemical characteristics of phospholipids critically influence the pharmacokinetic behaviour of liposomal formulations.[11]

 

 

 

 

 

Fig No:3 represent Structure of small unilamellar vesicles (SUV), large unilamellar vesicles (LUV), large multilamellar vesicles (MLV), large multivesicular vesicles (MVV)

 

Liposomes can be categorized as unilamellar vesicles, multilamellar vesicles (MLVs, in excess of 500 nm), and multivesicular vesicles (MVVs, larger than 1000 nm) determined by their size and the number of bilayers. Unilamellar vesicles are additionally categorized into three categories: gigantic unilamellar vesicles (GUVs, exceeding 1000 nm), large unilamellar vesicles (LUVs, 100–1000 nm), and small unilamellar vesicles (SUVs, 20–100 nm).[12] Liposomes represent widely utilized nanocarriers in nanomedicine owing to their excellent biocompatibility, physicochemical stability, straightforward synthesis, high drug-loading capacity, enhanced bioavailability, and the incorporation of pharmaceutically safe excipients in their formulations.[13] Liposomes have emerged as an effective delivery system for transporting therapeutic agents and other bioactive molecules to solid tumors.[14] Liposomes are typically cleared rapidly from the bloodstream. To enhance their in vivo stability, numerous studies have focused on the surface modification of liposomes.[15]

Since the U.S. FDA approved the first nanodrug—PEGylated liposomal doxorubicin (Doxil®)—for cancer treatment in 1995, the clinical value of liposomal drug delivery systems has gained substantial recognition. As of now, 19 liposomal clinical authorization has been granted for formulations designed to treat of various diseases, with eight specifically indicated for cancer therapy. [16]

 

 

Table No:1 represented liposomal drug formulations that have received clinical approval for the treatment of cancer

 

 

 

Liposomal drug formulations that have received clinical approval for the treatment of cancer

Drug Name

Brand Name

Approval year

Indication(s)

Composition of liposomes

Administration route

Doxorubicin

Doxil ®

1995

Ovarian, breast, bone, lung, brain cancer, leukaemia, AIDS-related Kaposi’s sarcoma

HSPC, CHOL, PEG2000-DSPE

i.v.

Daunorubicin

DaunoXm-e®

1996

Leukaemia and solid tumors

DSPC, CHOL

i.v.

Cytarabine

Depocyt®

1999

Lymphomatous meningitis

DOPC, DPPG, CHOL, Triolein

i.t.

Doxorubicin

Myocet®

2000

Combination therapy with cyclophosphamide in metastatic breast cancer

EPC, CHOL

i.v.

Mifamurtide

Mepact®

2004

High-grade resectable nonmetastatic osteosarcoma

DOPS, POPC

i.v.

Vincristine

Marqibo®

2012

Acute lymphoblastic leukaemia

Sphingomyelin, CHOL

i.v.

Irinotecan

Onivyde®

2015

Advanced pancreatic cancer

DSPC, MPEG-2000, DSPE

i.v.

Daunorubicin and

cytarabine

Vyxeos®

2017

Acute myeloid leukaemia

DSPC, DSPG, CHOL

i.v.

 

Certain nanoparticle-based drug formulations utilize PEGylation, which serves as a protective coating that significantly prolongs circulation time and minimizes immune system recognition.[17]

Quantum Dots:

Semiconductor nanocrystals referred to as quantum dots (QDs) reflect discrete electronic transitions analogous to those of isolated atoms and molecules.[18] They are commonly composed of binary or ternary alloys from groups II–VI, III–V, and IV–VI of the periodic table, and typically possess dimensions ranging from 2 to 20 nm. QDs offer several notable advantages, including (i) excellent optical stability and relatively long fluorescence lifetimes, (ii) the ability to excite multiple QDs simultaneously using a single light source, and (iii) narrow, size-tunable emission spectra coupled with broad absorption profiles.[19] Owing to the quantum confinement effect, QDs display unique optical properties compared with conventional organic dyes, such as broad excitation bands, narrow emission bands, high photoluminescence brightness, and size-dependent emission wavelengths that can be tuned across the visible to infrared spectral regions.[20] Quantum dots (QDs) can be designated relative to their composition, encompassing compound semiconductors like CdSe, CdTe, PbS, PbSe, and varying carbon-based structures as well as single-element materials like silicon or  germanium. Additional varieties of photoluminescent nanoparticles belong to semiconductor quantum dots (SQDs), carbon dots (CDs), and other similar kinds.[21]

 

 

 

Fig No:4 represent Cancer signature detection with the use of Quantum Dot beads

 

Quantum dots (QDs) may play a substantial role in tumor diagnosis. A fluo [Bio Render object] recent probe designed to recognize protein tyrosine kinase 7 in the peripheral circulation was developed using multi-carbon dots and an aptamer-based signal-amplification ratio metric strategy. When these QDs were used as fluorescent probes in cancer cell lines, they were shown to be relatively safe and allowed efficient, quantitative imaging. Their presence in the peripheral circulation may therefore aid in the detection of malignancy.[22] The current advancements, prevailing challenges, and prospective developments associated with quantum dots are summarized in the table below:

 

Table No: 2 represented quantum dot-based approaches in cancer diagnosis and therapeutics

Quantum Dot–Based Approaches in Cancer Diagnosis and Therapeutics [23]

QD application in cancer

Current advancement

Challenges

Goals for future development

SLN mapping

Sentinel Lymph Node Mapping in Mice and Pig Models

-

SLN Mapping for Malignancies of Visceral Organs

 

Detection Strategies for Primary and Metastatic Tumors

Monitoring Primary Tumor Growth in Xenograft Mouse Models

RES uptake

Detection of Metastatic Lesions, Including Micro metastases

Discovery of Molecular Targets to Support Targeted Treatment Approaches

In Vivo Targeting of Tumor Vasculature

RES uptake;

Barriers to Extravasation and Tumor Cell Delivery In Vivo

Targeting Tumor Cells;

Quantification of Molecular Target Expression;

Prediction of Therapeutic Response

 

Polymeric Micelles: 

Amphiphilic polymers spontaneously assemble into micelles once they reach the critical micelle concentration. A polymeric micelle forms when an amphiphilic polymer with a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail self-organizes in solution. Depending on the balance between the hydrophobic and hydrophilic segments, as well as the solvent conditions, micelles can adopt a variety of shapes, including spheres, tubules, inverse micelles, bottle-brush structures, and others. [24]

 

 

 

Fig No:5 represent depiction of the micelle architecture

 

Polymeric micelles function as amphiphilic structures in aqueous environments, shielding their hydrophobic components from water. Their distinctive core–shell architecture underlies their usefulness: the hydrophilic shell forms a brush-like layer that protects the hydrophobic core from biological interactions and reduces protein adsorption, while the hydrophobic core provides space to encapsulate hydrophobic drugs, proteins, or DNA through physical or chemical associations. Because their size exceeds the renal clearance threshold for nanoparticles (approximately 5.5 nm), polymeric micelles can carry substantial drug loads and remain in circulation for prolonged periods. These nanocarriers flow through the bloodstream and passively build up in places with leaky vasculature, even solid tumors or inflammatory tissues, in spite of the increased permeability and retention effect.[25] Both passive and actively targeted anticancer treatments incorporate polymeric micelle compositions. For instance, Genexol-PM currently serves as tested as a polymeric micelle system loaded with paclitaxel for the treatment of pancreatic, lung, and breast cancers. Doxorubicin-loaded micellar formulations Pluronic and NK911 are now undergoing Phase I clinical studies.Early clinical trials are also being conducted on NC6004, a formulation filled with carboplatin, for the treatment of solid tumors.[26] A doxorubicin-loaded PLGA-b PEG polymeric micelle formulation has been shown to boost tumor uptake and induce considerable tumor growth in a nude mouse xenograft model.[27]

Dendrimers:

Dendrimers are a class of three-dimensional nanostructured polymers, typically 2–10 nm in size, characterized by monodisperse molecular weight distributions and radially symmetric branching structures. To precisely control their generation-dependent physicochemical properties, these highly branched macromolecules are synthesized through repetitive reaction sequences, primarily using either divergent (core-to-periphery) or convergent (periphery-to-core) methods.[28] They offer numerous advantages, including high drug-loading capacity, controlled drug release, improved solubility of hydrophobic drugs, enhanced bioavailability, biodegradability, and more efficient penetration across biological cell membranes.[29] These properties result directly from their unique three-dimensional branched structure. Dendrimers are classified according to their branching units: the central core is referred to as generation 0 (G0), and the subsequent layers are denoted as G1, G2, G3, and so on.[30] Dendrimers have three fundamental structural aspects (i) a central core, composed of an atom or molecule with at least two chemical functionalities; (ii) branching regions that extend from the core, built from repeating units containing at least one branch junction. When these units are repeated, radially condensed layers, known as "generations," are formed; and (iii) a surface that typically contains various terminal functional groups, which govern the properties of the dendritic macromolecules.[31]

 

 

 

Fig No:5 represent schematic overview of Dendrimers.

 

Dendrimer nanoparticles a execute a substantial role in the development of drug delivery systems for cancer treatment. By incorporating targeting groups, dendrimers can be modified on their surface to facilitate either active or passive tumor targeting. They interact with drugs through chemical or physical means, including encapsulation, electrostatic attraction, or controlled drug release at the tumor site. This capability is particularly important in cancer therapy, as it enhances the selectivity of drugs, allowing them to target cancer cells while minimizing damage to healthy cells. In multidrug-resistant cancer cells, dendrimers have been shown to effectively deliver small interfering RNA (siRNA) for gene silencing. Additionally, they exhibit anti-tumor effects by inhibiting tumor cell migration and inducing apoptosis.[32]

 

 

The table:3 highlights recent advancements in employing dendrimers and as carriers for the delivery of individual drugs or multiple drugs simultaneously.

 

Delivery System

Drug

Methods

inference

Ref.

Trastuzumab-conjugated PAMAM dendrimers

DOX and

MAb

PAMAM was conjugated to DOX via cis-aconitic anhydride (CAA)

PAMAM-DOX-trastuzumab conjugates, prepared via cis-aconitic anhydride (CAA), showed selective toxicity against HER2-positive (SKBR-3) cells compared to HER2-negative (MCF-7) cells

[33]

Mitochondrial-targeted PAMAM dendrimers

Curcumin

Chemical conjugation

Selectively induced apoptosis and G2/M cell cycle arrest, with enhanced solubility.

[34]

Stimuli-responsive dendritic polymer-based nano cocktail

Gefitinib and YAP-siRNA

Chemical conjugation and electric condensation

Stimuli-responsive dendritic polymer nano cocktail (Gefitinib + YAP-siRNA) induced apoptosis and enhanced antitumor efficacy with PDT in xenograft models.

[35]

Cy3-labeled G4 (G4-Cy3) and Cy5-labeled G6 (PAMAM)dendrimers (G6-Cy5)

Fluorescent dye Cy3 and Cy5

Surface modification produced amine-terminated bifunctional dendrimers

G6 dendrimers exhibited superior delivery efficacy relative to G4 dendrimers

[35-36]

FA-conjugated PAMAM dendrimers

siRNA and CDDP

Covalent conjugation to the G4 dendrimer was achieved using PEI and PEG.

Enhanced HuR siRNA and CDDP therapeutic effects in H1299 cells.

[37]

 

Carbon Nanotubes:

One-dimensional carbon allotropes labelled carbon nanotubes (CNTs), recognized as "buckytubes," are distinct by an exceptionally high aspect ratio, constantly surpassing one million.[38] One graphene sheet is rolled into a seamless cylinder with a diameter of roughly nano meter (nm) to assemble them. High mechanical strength, distinctive electrical features, a huge surface area, low density, chemical inertness, and incredible thermal stability are all manifested by CNTs.[39] Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), which originate up of a single rolled graphene sheet, and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), which are constituted up in multiple concentric graphene cylinders, are the two predominant kinds of carbon nanotubes. Arc discharge, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and laser ablation are the predominant ways to synthesize for carbon nanotubes (CNTs).[40] Pentagonal carbon rings exist in the curving end caps of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), whereas hexagonally constructed carbon atoms compose their walls.[41] CNTs are deemed essential building blocks in nanotechnology owing to their structural adaptability and functional tunability. They promise candidates for drug delivery applications, notably oncology, where they can transport therapeutic agents selectively into neoplastic cells while minimizing off-target toxicity in surrounding healthy tissues through their large cargo-loading capacity and strong cell penetration ability.[42]

 

 

 

Fig No:7 represent schematic overview carbon nanotubes

 

Carbon nanotubes are deemed to be an intriguing approach to identify biomolecule expression relevant to the early stages of cancer by virtue of their remarkable electrical, mechanical, and thermal capabilities.[43] Besides, carbon nanotubes are fascinating as transporters and mediators in cancer treatment. An array of chemotherapeutic medications, such as doxorubicin, camptothecin, carboplatin, cisplatin, paclitaxel, and platinum-based compounds like Pt (II) and Pt (IV), are being evaluated for their potential to be delivered using functionalized CNTs.[44]

 

Table No: 4 represented the various types of carbon nanotubes used in cancer therapy.

System

Functionalization

Drug

Tumor cell/ cancer type disease

Ref.

SWNTs

Lipid molecule docosanol, folic acid

Paclitaxel

Human breast cancer, xenograft mouse model (MCF-7 breast cancer cells)

[45]

SWNTs

Chitosan, folic acid

Doxorubicin

Hepatocellular carcinoma cell line (HCC) SMMC-7721 & liver cancer in nude mice

[46]

SWNTs

Chitosan oligomer, folic acid

Doxorubicin

A549 cells lines, lung cancer cells, tumor bearing mouse model

[47]

MWCNTs

Polyethylene glycol, folic acid

Docetaxel

Tumor bearing Balb/c mice (MCF-7cells)

[48]

MWCNTs

Glycosylated chitosan

Doxorubicin

Hepatic tumor, HepG2 cells & mice bearing hepatocellular carcinoma H22 cells

[49]

MWCNTs

D-α-Tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (vitamin ETPGS)

Doxorubicin

Tumor bearing Balb/c mice (MCF-7 cancer cell line)

[50]

 

Nanocantilevers:

Cantilevers are tiny, micron-sized devices made with semiconductor lithographic technology. They are flexible beams that resemble rows of diving boards. These cantilevers are coated with chemicals that can bind to compounds specific to DNA and tumors that are complementary to specific gene sequences. These micron-sized devices have several nanometer-wide cantilevers that draw in and bind to cancer cell released products. The antibodies are made to identify one or more particular molecular expressions that come from cancerous cells. The cantilevers' physical characteristics alter when molecules attach to the antibodies. The existence or absence of molecular markers and their concentration can be ascertained through the real-time detection of these changes. Cantilevers are therefore used as a diagnostic tool to identify molecular indicators of cancer in vivo.[51]

Aspects of targeted cancer therapy:

Most traditional anticancer drugs lack specificity for tumor cells, causing systemic toxicity and severe side effects that limit their clinical efficacy. Their rapid clearance and nonspecific distribution demand high doses, increasing toxicity and treatment costs. Nanotechnology provides a targeted approach, improving drug delivery and reducing adverse effects. Building on this principle, nanomedicine employs passive and active targeting to deliver drugs selectively to tumor sites, enhancing bioavailability, reducing harm to healthy tissues and enhancing patient results.

 

 

 

Fig No:8 represent active and passive targeting. ERP effect shown on particles with no ligands on their surface and active targeting with nanocarriers with cancer-specified ligands on their surface.

 

Passive Targeting:

Passive targeting leverages the pathological heterogeneity between normal and neoplastic vasculature to achieve preferential drug deposition within tumor tissues. This mechanism primarily involves the diffusion-mediated transport of nanoscale drug–carrier assemblies that are engineered to evade opsonization and subsequent clearance by the reticuloendothelial system (RES). The biodistribution and tumor accumulation of these carriers are governed by critical physicochemical parameters, including hydrodynamic diameter, molecular weight, surface hydrophobicity or hydrophilicity. Passive targeting exploits the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect—arising from leaky tumor vasculature and impaired lymphatic drainage—along with the distinctive biochemical characteristics of the tumor microenvironment to facilitate selective and sustained intratumoral drug accumulation.[52,53]

The enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect facilitates the accumulation of macromolecules in tumor tissue by allowing their passage through leaky vasculature and their prolonged retention due to impaired lymphatic drainage.[54] The development of tumors is contingent upon angiogenesis. Tumor vasculature, in contrast to normal vessels, has 600–800 nm endothelial gaps, enabling let nanoparticles to move through the tumor interstitium and build up in the tissue. As an outcome, compared to free drugs nanoparticle-based application may spike intratumoral drug accumulation by upwards of tenfold.[55]

The distinct microenvironment of tumor cells, which diverges from that of normal cells, is another element impacting passive targeting. Cancer cells that proliferate promptly have a high metabolic requirement, yet their proliferation is frequently not supported by the accessibility of oxygen and nutrients. An acidic environment is generated as a consequence of tumor cells exploiting glycolysis to produce extra energy.[56] Furthermore, certain enzymes as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which are vital for tumor migration, invasion, and metastasis, are overexpressed and liberated by cancer cells. One passive targeting strategy that relies on this feature of the tumor-associated milieu is tumor-activated prodrug treatment. MMP-2 effectively and selectively cleaved a nanoparticle coupled with an albumin-bound version of DOX and an MMP-2-specific peptide sequence (Gly-Pro-Leu-Gly-Ile-Ala-Gly-Gln).[55]

Regardless of passive targeting tactics' favourable effects, there persists a few issues that need to be resolved. Due to non-uniform vascular permeability within the same tumor, certain tumors show low delivery efficiency because the increased permeability and retention (EPR) effect has disappeared or varying. In order to address these issues, nanoparticles have been designed for active targeting, in which certain ligands are added to identify and attach to specific receptors expressed on target cells.[57]

Active Targeting:

Using specific affinity ligands that direct nanoparticles toward specific biological targets is regarded as active targeting, or ligand-mediated targeting.[58] These targets are mostly antigens that are variably overexpressed in sick tissues and on plasma membranes.[59] Active targeting of cancer cells can, in theory, be achieved through the use of a ligand that exhibits preferential binding to malignant cells over non-malignant cells or that enables selective activation in the proximity of malignant cells.[60,61] To facilitate the localization of nanoparticles (NPs) to malignant cells via active targeting strategies, various molecular targets have been utilized, including an abundance of growth factor receptors—most notably the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), the transferrin receptor, and death receptor (DR) complexes (e.g., DR5)—as well as folate ligands and tumor-specific antigens such as prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA).[62,63]

One of the well-known instances of tailored drug delivery is lectin-carbohydrate. Glycoproteins aggregated on cell surfaces tend to be targeted and bound by lectins, which are non-immunological proteins. There are very specific interactions between lectin and certain carbs. Drug delivery techniques to lectins (direct lectin) can be targeted by carbohydrate moieties lectins as targeting moieties to target cell surface carbohydrates (reverse lectin targeting). However, lectin-carbohydrate-based drug delivery methods are primarily designed to target entire organs, which may be harmful to healthy cells. As a result, the targeting moiety is typically focused on certain receptors or antigens that are expressed at the tumor site or on the plasma membrane.[64]

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTION:

Over the years, nanotechnology has proved tremendous promise in cures of cancer. Nanomaterials have been useful in improving cancer detection and treatment because of their improved pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties. Because of its specificity, nanotechnology reduces systemic toxicity by enabling tailored drug delivery to afflicted organs. However, similar to other therapeutic techniques, nanotechnology has a number of drawbacks and difficulties, including as organ-specific and systemic toxicities, which restrict its clinical use. Given these constraints, more progress is needed to improve therapeutic efficacy, optimize drug delivery systems, and lower related dangers. Safer and more efficient derivatives for better cancer diagnosis and treatment can be created by enhancing the interactions between the physicochemical characteristics of nanomaterials.

 

 

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  13. Mohammed KJ, JI AS, Saeed HH. Exploring the potential of nanoparticles as a drug delivery system for cancer therapy: A review. Al-Salam Journal for Medical Science. 2025;4(1):37-43. https://doi.org/10.55145/ajbms.2025.4.1.006
  14. Marcinkowska M, Sobierajska E, Stanczyk M, Janaszewska A, Chworos A, Klajnert-Maculewicz B. Conjugate of PAMAM dendrimer, doxorubicin and monoclonal antibody—trastuzumab: the new approach of a well-known strategy. Polymers. 2018 Feb 14;10(2):187. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10020187
  15. Kianamiri S, Dinari A, Sadeghizadeh M, Rezaei M, Daraei B, Bahsoun NE, Nomani A. Mitochondria-targeted polyamidoamine dendrimer–curcumin construct for hepatocellular cancer treatment. Molecular Pharmaceutics. 2020 Nov 18;17(12):4483-98.
  16. Huang J, Zhuang C, Chen J, Chen X, Li X, Zhang T, Wang B, Feng Q, Zheng X, Gong M, Gong Q. Targeted drug/gene/photodynamic therapy via a stimuli?responsive dendritic?polymer?based nanococktail for treatment of EGFR?TKI?resistant non?small?cell lung cancer. Advanced materials. 2022 Jul;34(27):2201516. 
  1. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202201516
  1. Amreddy N, Babu A, Panneerselvam J, Srivastava A, Muralidharan R, Chen A, Zhao YD, Munshi A, Ramesh R. Chemo-biologic combinatorial drug delivery using folate receptor-targeted dendrimer nanoparticles for lung cancer treatment. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine. 2018 Feb 1;14(2):373-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2017.11.010
  2. Ding L, Agrawal P, Singh SK, Chhonker YS, Sun J, Murry DJ. Polymer-based drug delivery systems for cancer therapeutics. Polymers. 2024 Mar 19;16(6):843.  https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16060843
  3. Bhardwaj AK, Kant A, Rehalia A, Singh V, Sharma R. A review on nanomaterials for drug delivery systems and application of carbon based nanomaterials. ES Materials & Manufacturing. 2023 Feb 26;21(2):824. 10.30919/esmm5f824
  4. Rahamathulla M, Bhosale RR, Osmani RA, Mahima KC, Johnson AP, Hani U, Ghazwani M, Begum MY, Alshehri S, Ghoneim MM, Shakeel F. Carbon nanotubes: current perspectives on diverse applications in targeted drug delivery and therapies. Materials. 2021 Nov 7;14(21):6707.  https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216707
  5. Zare H, Ahmadi S, Ghasemi A, Ghanbari M, Rabiee N, Bagherzadeh M, Karimi M, Webster TJ, Hamblin MR, Mostafavi E. Carbon nanotubes: Smart drug/gene delivery carriers. International journal of nanomedicine. 2021 Mar 1:1681-70 https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S299448

 

  1. Dubey R, Dutta D, Sarkar A, Chattopadhyay P. Functionalized carbon nanotubes: synthesis, properties and applications in water purification, drug delivery, and material and biomedical sciences. Nanoscale Advances. 2021;3(20):5722-44.  10.1039/D1NA00293G
  2. Hilder TA, Hill JM. Modeling the loading and unloading of drugs into nanotubes. Small. 2009 Feb 6;5(3):300-8. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200800321
  3. Gao S, Xu B, Sun J, Zhang Z. Nanotechnological advances in cancer: therapy a comprehensive review of carbon nanotube applications. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology. 2024 Mar 6;12:1351787. 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1351787
  4. Al-Thani AN, Jan AG, Abbas M, Geetha M, Sadasivuni KK. Nanoparticles in cancer theragnostic and drug delivery: A comprehensive review. Life sciences. 2024 Sep 1;352:122899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122899
  5. W. Shao, A. Paul, B. Zhao, C. Lee, L. Rodes and S. Prakash, Biomaterials, 2013, 34, 10109–10119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.09.007
  6. Ji Z, Lin G, Lu Q, Meng L, Shen X, Dong L, Fu C, Zhang X. Targeted therapy of SMMC-7721 liver cancer in vitro and in vivo with carbon nanotubes-based drug delivery system. Journal of colloid and interface science. 2012 Jan 1;365(1):143-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2011.09.013
  7. A. Chen, C. Xu, M. Li, H. Zhang, D. Wang, M. Xia, G. Meng, B. Kang, H. Chen and J. Wei, Sci. Rep., 2015, 5, 15527–15535.
  8. Mehra NK, Jain NK. Cancer targeting propensity of folate conjugated surface engineered multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2015 Aug 1;132:17-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.04.056
  9. Qi X, Rui Y, Fan Y, Chen H, Ma N, Wu Z. Galactosylated chitosan-grafted multiwall carbon nanotubes for pH-dependent sustained release and hepatic tumor-targeted delivery of doxorubicin in vivo. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2015 Sep 1;133:314-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.06.003
  10. Mehra NK, Verma AK, Mishra PR, Jain NK. The cancer targeting potential of D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate tethered multi walled carbon nanotubes. Biomaterials. 2014 May 1;35(15):4573-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.02.022
  11. Biswal BM, Yusoff Z. Application of nanotechnology in cancer treatment. InEngineering applications of nanotechnology: from energy to drug delivery 2017 Jan 12 (pp. 269-311). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29761-3_11
  12. Vasir JK, Labhasetwar V. Targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy. Technology in cancer research & treatment. 2005 Aug;4(4):363-74. https://doi.org/10.1177/153303460500400405
  13. Chaturvedi VK, Singh A, Singh VK, Singh MP. Cancer nanotechnology: a new revolution for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Current drug metabolism. 2019 May 1;20(6):416-29.https://doi.org/10.2174/1389200219666180918111528
  14. Gmeiner WH, Ghosh S. Nanotechnology for cancer treatment. Nanotechnology reviews. 2014 Apr 1;3(2):111-22. 10.1515/ntrev-2013-0013
  15. Wang X, Yang L, Chen Z, Shin DM. Application of nanotechnology in cancer therapy and imaging. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians. 2008 Mar;58(2):97-110. 
  1. https://doi.org/10.3322/CA.2007.0003
  1. Misra R, Acharya S, Sahoo SK. Cancer nanotechnology: application of nanotechnology in cancer therapy. Drug discovery today. 2010 Oct 1;15(19-20):842-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2010.08.006
  2. Aslan B, Ozpolat B, Sood AK, Lopez-Berestein G. Nanotechnology in cancer therapy. Journal of drug targeting. 2013 Dec 1;21(10):904-13. https://doi.org/10.3109/1061186X.2013.837469
  3. Bertrand N, Wu J, Xu X, Kamaly N, Farokhzad OC. Cancer nanotechnology: the impact of passive and active targeting in the era of modern cancer biology. Advanced drug delivery reviews. 2014 Feb 1;66:2-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2013.11.009
  4. Sanna V, Pala N, Sechi M. Targeted therapy using nanotechnology: focus on cancer. International journal of nanomedicine. 2014 Jan 15:467-83. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S36654
  5. Danhier F, Feron O, Préat V. To exploit the tumor microenvironment: Passive and active tumor targeting of nanocarriers for anti-cancer drug delivery. Journal of controlled release. 2010 Dec 1;148(2):135-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2010.08.027
  6. Lehtinen J, Raki M, Bergström KA, Uutela P, Lehtinen K, Hiltunen A, Pikkarainen J, Liang H, Pitkänen S, Määttä AM, Ketola RA. Pre-targeting and direct immune targeting of liposomal drug carriers to ovarian carcinoma. PloS one. 2012 Jul 26;7(7):e41410. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0041410
  7. Yang L, Mao H, Wang YA, Cao Z, Peng X, Wang X, Duan H, Ni C, Yuan Q, Adams G, Smith MQ. Single chain epidermal growth factor receptor antibody conjugated nanoparticles for in vivo tumor targeting and imaging. small. 2009 Jan 19;5(2):235-43.  https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200800714
  8. Choi CH, Alabi CA, Webster P, Davis ME. Mechanism of active targeting in solid tumors with transferrin-containing gold nanoparticles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2010 Jan 19;107(3):1235-40.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914140107

  1. Kolhe S, Parikh K. Application of nanotechnology in cancer: A review. International Journal of Bioinformatics Research and Applications. 2012 Jan 1;8(1-2):112-25. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBRA.2012.045954

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  12. Fadaei MR, Fadaei MS, Kheirieh AE, Hatami H, Rahmanian-Devin P, Khorrami VT, Fathabadi MF, Rahimi VB, Askari VR. Overview of dendrimers as promising drug delivery systems with insight into anticancer and anti-microbial applications. International Journal of Pharmaceutics: X. 2025 Sep 9:100390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpx.2025.100390
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  1. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202201516
  1. Amreddy N, Babu A, Panneerselvam J, Srivastava A, Muralidharan R, Chen A, Zhao YD, Munshi A, Ramesh R. Chemo-biologic combinatorial drug delivery using folate receptor-targeted dendrimer nanoparticles for lung cancer treatment. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine. 2018 Feb 1;14(2):373-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2017.11.010
  2. Ding L, Agrawal P, Singh SK, Chhonker YS, Sun J, Murry DJ. Polymer-based drug delivery systems for cancer therapeutics. Polymers. 2024 Mar 19;16(6):843.  https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16060843
  3. Bhardwaj AK, Kant A, Rehalia A, Singh V, Sharma R. A review on nanomaterials for drug delivery systems and application of carbon based nanomaterials. ES Materials & Manufacturing. 2023 Feb 26;21(2):824. 10.30919/esmm5f824
  4. Rahamathulla M, Bhosale RR, Osmani RA, Mahima KC, Johnson AP, Hani U, Ghazwani M, Begum MY, Alshehri S, Ghoneim MM, Shakeel F. Carbon nanotubes: current perspectives on diverse applications in targeted drug delivery and therapies. Materials. 2021 Nov 7;14(21):6707.  https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216707
  5. Zare H, Ahmadi S, Ghasemi A, Ghanbari M, Rabiee N, Bagherzadeh M, Karimi M, Webster TJ, Hamblin MR, Mostafavi E. Carbon nanotubes: Smart drug/gene delivery carriers. International journal of nanomedicine. 2021 Mar 1:1681-70 https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S299448

 

  1. Dubey R, Dutta D, Sarkar A, Chattopadhyay P. Functionalized carbon nanotubes: synthesis, properties and applications in water purification, drug delivery, and material and biomedical sciences. Nanoscale Advances. 2021;3(20):5722-44.  10.1039/D1NA00293G
  2. Hilder TA, Hill JM. Modeling the loading and unloading of drugs into nanotubes. Small. 2009 Feb 6;5(3):300-8. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200800321
  3. Gao S, Xu B, Sun J, Zhang Z. Nanotechnological advances in cancer: therapy a comprehensive review of carbon nanotube applications. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology. 2024 Mar 6;12:1351787. 10.3389/fbioe.2024.1351787
  4. Al-Thani AN, Jan AG, Abbas M, Geetha M, Sadasivuni KK. Nanoparticles in cancer theragnostic and drug delivery: A comprehensive review. Life sciences. 2024 Sep 1;352:122899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2024.122899
  5. W. Shao, A. Paul, B. Zhao, C. Lee, L. Rodes and S. Prakash, Biomaterials, 2013, 34, 10109–10119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2013.09.007
  6. Ji Z, Lin G, Lu Q, Meng L, Shen X, Dong L, Fu C, Zhang X. Targeted therapy of SMMC-7721 liver cancer in vitro and in vivo with carbon nanotubes-based drug delivery system. Journal of colloid and interface science. 2012 Jan 1;365(1):143-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2011.09.013
  7. A. Chen, C. Xu, M. Li, H. Zhang, D. Wang, M. Xia, G. Meng, B. Kang, H. Chen and J. Wei, Sci. Rep., 2015, 5, 15527–15535.
  8. Mehra NK, Jain NK. Cancer targeting propensity of folate conjugated surface engineered multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2015 Aug 1;132:17-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.04.056
  9. Qi X, Rui Y, Fan Y, Chen H, Ma N, Wu Z. Galactosylated chitosan-grafted multiwall carbon nanotubes for pH-dependent sustained release and hepatic tumor-targeted delivery of doxorubicin in vivo. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2015 Sep 1;133:314-22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfb.2015.06.003
  10. Mehra NK, Verma AK, Mishra PR, Jain NK. The cancer targeting potential of D-α-tocopheryl polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate tethered multi walled carbon nanotubes. Biomaterials. 2014 May 1;35(15):4573-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.02.022
  11. Biswal BM, Yusoff Z. Application of nanotechnology in cancer treatment. InEngineering applications of nanotechnology: from energy to drug delivery 2017 Jan 12 (pp. 269-311). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29761-3_11
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  13. Chaturvedi VK, Singh A, Singh VK, Singh MP. Cancer nanotechnology: a new revolution for cancer diagnosis and therapy. Current drug metabolism. 2019 May 1;20(6):416-29.https://doi.org/10.2174/1389200219666180918111528
  14. Gmeiner WH, Ghosh S. Nanotechnology for cancer treatment. Nanotechnology reviews. 2014 Apr 1;3(2):111-22. 10.1515/ntrev-2013-0013
  15. Wang X, Yang L, Chen Z, Shin DM. Application of nanotechnology in cancer therapy and imaging. CA: a cancer journal for clinicians. 2008 Mar;58(2):97-110. 
  1. https://doi.org/10.3322/CA.2007.0003
  1. Misra R, Acharya S, Sahoo SK. Cancer nanotechnology: application of nanotechnology in cancer therapy. Drug discovery today. 2010 Oct 1;15(19-20):842-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drudis.2010.08.006
  2. Aslan B, Ozpolat B, Sood AK, Lopez-Berestein G. Nanotechnology in cancer therapy. Journal of drug targeting. 2013 Dec 1;21(10):904-13. https://doi.org/10.3109/1061186X.2013.837469
  3. Bertrand N, Wu J, Xu X, Kamaly N, Farokhzad OC. Cancer nanotechnology: the impact of passive and active targeting in the era of modern cancer biology. Advanced drug delivery reviews. 2014 Feb 1;66:2-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addr.2013.11.009
  4. Sanna V, Pala N, Sechi M. Targeted therapy using nanotechnology: focus on cancer. International journal of nanomedicine. 2014 Jan 15:467-83. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S36654
  5. Danhier F, Feron O, Préat V. To exploit the tumor microenvironment: Passive and active tumor targeting of nanocarriers for anti-cancer drug delivery. Journal of controlled release. 2010 Dec 1;148(2):135-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2010.08.027
  6. Lehtinen J, Raki M, Bergström KA, Uutela P, Lehtinen K, Hiltunen A, Pikkarainen J, Liang H, Pitkänen S, Määttä AM, Ketola RA. Pre-targeting and direct immune targeting of liposomal drug carriers to ovarian carcinoma. PloS one. 2012 Jul 26;7(7):e41410. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0041410
  7. Yang L, Mao H, Wang YA, Cao Z, Peng X, Wang X, Duan H, Ni C, Yuan Q, Adams G, Smith MQ. Single chain epidermal growth factor receptor antibody conjugated nanoparticles for in vivo tumor targeting and imaging. small. 2009 Jan 19;5(2):235-43.  https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.200800714
  8. Choi CH, Alabi CA, Webster P, Davis ME. Mechanism of active targeting in solid tumors with transferrin-containing gold nanoparticles. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2010 Jan 19;107(3):1235-40.

https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914140107

  1. Kolhe S, Parikh K. Application of nanotechnology in cancer: A review. International Journal of Bioinformatics Research and Applications. 2012 Jan 1;8(1-2):112-25. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJBRA.2012.045954

Photo
Priyanka Patil
Corresponding author

Kle college of pharmacy, Airport Road, Basavan Kudachi- 591124, Belagavi Karnataka, India.

Photo
Poonam Patil
Co-author

Kle college of pharmacy, Belagavi Karnataka, India

Photo
Bhaskar Kurangi
Co-author

Kle college of pharmacy, Belagavi Karnataka, India

Poonam Patil, Priyanka Patil, Bhaskar Kurangi, Recent Advances in Nanotechnology- Based Drug Delivery System For Cancer Therapy, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2026, Vol 4, Issue 4, 1761-1776 https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19506476

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