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Abstract

This review explains the synthesis, characterization, and potential applications of Camomile (Matricaria chamomile) Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs). Recent advancements in nanotechnology have highlighted the significance of biologically synthesized nanoparticles due to their eco-friendly and cost-effective nature. Camomile, a medicinal plant known for its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, serves as an effective reducing agent in the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles. This review comprehensively examines the methodologies employed in the biosynthesis of Camomile silver nanoparticles, including various characterization techniques such as UV-Vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Additionally, the review delves into the biomedical applications of these nanoparticles, emphasizing their antimicrobial, anticancer, and wound-healing properties. The potential of Camomile AgNPs in drug delivery systems and their cytotoxicity are also discussed. Finally, the review addresses the challenges and future prospects in the field, aiming to provide a thorough understanding of the current state and future directions of Camomile silver nanoparticles in nanomedicine.

Keywords

Chamomile, Silver nanoparticles, Anti-fungal, Green Synthesis

Introduction

Chamomile, specifically (Matricaria chamomile, also known as German chamomile, is a well-known medicinal plant belonging to the Asteraceae family. This annual herb, characterized by its aromatic scent and daisy-like flowers, has been used for centuries in traditional medicine across various cultures. Native to Europe and Western Asia, chamomile is now cultivated worldwide due to its numerous therapeutic properties. The chamomile plant is renowned for its rich phytochemical composition, including essential oils such as bisabolol and chamazulene, flavonoids like apigenin and luteolin, and other bioactive compounds. These constituents are primarily responsible for chamomile's extensive range of medicinal applications, which include anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and sedative effects. Traditionally, chamomile has been employed in the treatment of various ailments, including digestive disorders, skin irritations, and anxiety. Its soothing properties make it a popular ingredient in teas, topical formulations, and cosmetics. In recent years, scientific research has further validated the pharmacological benefits of chamomile, leading to a resurgence of interest in its therapeutic potential. In addition to its conventional uses, chamomile has garnered attention in the field of nanotechnology for its role in the green synthesis of nanoparticles. The plant's natural compounds act as reducing and stabilizing agents, facilitating the environmentally friendly production of nanoparticles with diverse biomedical applications. This innovative approach aligns with the growing demand for sustainable and biocompatible materials in advanced medical therapies.  This review delves into the emerging domain of chamomile-based silver nanoparticles, highlighting their synthesis, properties, and potential applications in modern medicine. Chamomile essential oil and extracts have antifungal effects against certain fungi such as Candida and Aspergillus species. Silver nanoparticles are used in medical devices and topical drugs for their ability to fight against microorganisms and prevent infection. The process of creating silver nanoparticles without using chemicals or traditional methods is called green synthesis. This method utilizes natural extracts, such as polyphenols and flavonoids found in plants, to create the nanoparticles. The few advantages of green synthesis are being more environmentally friendly, cost-effective, biocompatible, and versatile for various applications.[1] To understand the properties and potential uses of silver nanoparticles, they are analyzed using techniques like transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and X-ray diffraction. These methods help determine the size, shape, distribution, and optical characteristics of the nanoparticles. It is crucial to thoroughly characterize silver nanoparticles to comprehend their behavior and possible applications. [2]

BRIEF NOTE ON CHAMOMILE

DESCRIPTION:

Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L) commonly known as German chamomile, is an annual herbaceous plant belonging to the Asteraceae family. This plant is distinguished by its feathery foliage and aromatic flowers, which have been utilized in traditional medicine for centuries.

They are mainly of two varieties i.e. German chamomile (Chamomilla recutita) and Roman Chamomile (Chamamelum mobile). Chamomile are the native of South Europe and Northern Europe. They are mainly grown in many countries like Germany, Russia, Yugoslavia, North Africa, Asia, and India. In India, chamomile plants are grown abundantly in the regions of Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Jammu, and Kashmir. [3] In India presently two firm regions grow chamomile in large numbers, they are as follows:

        *M/s Ranbaxy Labs Ltd, At New Delhi

        *M/s German Remedies, are the main growers.

 

Ancient doctors used Chamomile for intermittent fever, and various other problems like ulcers, hemorrhoids, menstrual disorders, GI Disorders, Inflammation, etc.  The chamomile plant is referred to as a “STAR AMONG MEDICINAL SPECIES”. Flowers of the Chamomile plant are in great demand as they can be utilized for the distillation of oil. It is the traditional medicine that is used in various traditional, Homeopathic, and Unani medicinal preparations. The plant is included in the pharmacopeia of various countries. The flower has an essential oil called blue essential oil which has many uses for humankind, hence its demand has grown to a large extent. It is used both internally and externally in the body and has great relieving action. [4]

PLANT DESCRIPTION:

The chamomile plant is an annual plant with spindle-shaped roots that can easily penetrate the soil. The stems of Matricaria chamomilla are slender, erect, and branching. They typically grow to a height of 15-60 cm (6-24 inches). The stems are smooth and green, providing structural support to the plant. The branches are usually upright and can grow up to 80cm. The leaves are finely divided and feathery, giving them a delicate, fern-like appearance. They are bipinnate or tripinnate, meaning they are divided into multiple smaller leaflets. The leaves are alternately arranged along the stem and are bright green. The flowers are the most distinctive feature of Matricaria chamomilla. Each flower head is composed of a central yellow disc of tubular florets surrounded by white ray florets. The flower heads are about 1-2 cm (0.4-0.8 inches) in diameter. They are borne singly on long peduncles and have a pleasant, apple-like fragrance. Chamomile plants are diploid species and rely on cross-pollination for reproduction. They can be grown in any type of soil, although it's best to avoid waterlogged soils. Chamomile plants are also able to tolerate cold temperatures. The plant has a fibrous root system that is relatively shallow but effective in anchoring the plant in the soil and absorbing nutrients and water. German chamomile is native to Europe and Western Asia but has been widely cultivated and naturalized in temperate regions around the world. It thrives in well-drained soils, preferring sandy or loamy textures, and requires full sun for optimal growth. The plant is commonly found in fields, meadows, gardens, and along roadsides. They are usually grown with seeds and can be alternated with crops grown during the kharif season such as paddy rice or maize.[5]


       
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    Fig no 1 Parts Of The Chamomile Plant


Classification of M. chomomila:


       
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CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF CHAMOMILE PLANT [6]

Chamomile plants typically contain various active compounds:      

Essential Oils:

The plant's essential oils are rich in compounds such as ?-bisabolol, chamazulene, and bisabolol oxide, which contribute to its anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antispasmodic properties. Flavonoids:

Key flavonoids found in chamomile include apigenin, quercetin, and luteolin, known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities.  Coumarins:

Compounds such as umbelliferone and herniarin add to the plant's pharmacological effects.

  • Sesquiterpenes
  • Flavonoids
  • Polyacetylene

The chamomile flower alone contains over 120 chemical constituents. This includes:

a. 29 terpenoids

b. 37 flavonoids

Approximately 51 other compounds with 37 flavonoids that have pharmacological activity. German chamomile [7] is known for its blue essential oil, which is a natural source of terpenoid alpha-bisabol and oxide azulenes such as chamazulene and acetylene derivatives. Secondarily, Roman chamomile consists of esters of angelic acid and tiglic acid, farnesene, and alpha-pinene.

Additionally, the chamomile plant also contains:

  1. 0.6% sesquiterpene lactones, including robin and 3 Ginobili
  2. 27 organic acids, where 4 include primary metabolites that are used for the growth of living organisms. They have a great activity in treating cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and any other dreadful disease. And the remaining 23 are secondary metabolites.[8] The flavonoids present in the plant include quercetin, rutin, and luteolin, and these mainly exhibit antioxidant, antibacterial, and other activity. A few Coumarins, present in the plant include coumarin, 7 methoxy coumarin, daphnin, daphnetin, scopoletin, and iso scopoletin. Volatile oils are prepared by the Distillation process and can be identified using gas chromatography.

USES OF CHAMOMILE

  • They can be used widely for cancer-causing agents which include the treatment of malignant tumors.
  • They possess Antioxidant activity, Antihypertensive activity, and Hypoglycaemic activity.
  • Chamomile can be used to relieve allergic symptoms, ex, and antiallergic tea can be also used for resistance[9].
  • Chamomile tea is a reliever for patients suffering from postpartum depression, psychological discomfort, and other types of depression.
  • They are useful for diarrhea and used as an antispasmodic activity.
  • Chamomile can repair sensitive skin and improve dehydration. It can be used in various forms like creams, and ointments to treat infections caused by skin.
  • Chamomile tea is commonly used to relieve indigestion, bloating, and colic.
  • Topical applications of chamomile extracts are effective in treating skin irritations, eczema, and minor wounds.
  • The plant's mild sedative effects help reduce anxiety and promote sleep.
  • Chamomile extracts are used to alleviate inflammation and oxidative stress.

Antifungal activity in chamomile

Chamomile Extract-Mediated Effects

  • Phenolic Compounds: Chamazulene and ?-bisabolol in chamomile extract exhibit intrinsic antifungal properties.
  • Membrane Fluidity Alteration: Chamomile flavonoids can modify fungal membrane fluidity, enhancing AgNP penetration.
  • Biofilm Inhibition: Certain compounds in chamomile extract may interfere with fungal biofilm formation.

The effectiveness of chamomile for specific types of fungal infections:      

Nail Fungus:

[10] Despite limited clinical research on the subject, medical professionals do not recommend chamomile as a treatment for nail fungus. Nonetheless, chamomile has demonstrated potential antifungal activity against various fungal strains, which can be for complementary approach alongside conventional medical treatments[11]. Yeast Infections:

Various cases have shown that chamomile has antifungal properties against species of Candida, which are known to cause yeast infections in people. Nevertheless, little clinical study was performed on the efficacy of chamomile in treating yeast infections, and doctors do not advise using it as a treatment. For a correct diagnosis and suitable treatment choices for yeast infections, it is imperative to speak with a medical practitioner.  It's crucial to remember that even while chamomile has demonstrated some antifungal efficacy, it shouldn't be the only treatment for fungal infections.[12] It can be applied in addition to traditional medical therapies as a supplemental strategy.

Efficacy and Comparative studies

Chamomile extract silver nanoparticles (CE-AgNPs) represent a novel approach in antifungal therapy, combining the traditional medicinal properties of chamomile with the well-established antimicrobial effects of silver nanoparticles. This synergistic combination offers potential advantages over conventional antifungal agents[13].

Comparison with Traditional Antifungal Agents

 Advantages[15]

  • Broad-Spectrum Activity: Effective against a wide range of fungal species, including drug-resistant strains.
  • Lower Risk of Resistance: Multiple mechanisms of action reduce the probability of resistance development.
  • Potential for Lower Toxicity: The use of natural extracts may reduce overall toxicity compared to synthetic antifungals.

Challenges

  • Standardization: Ensuring consistent composition and efficacy of plant-derived components.
  • Dose Optimization: Balancing antifungal efficacy with potential toxicity of silver nanoparticles.
  • Regulatory Hurdles: Novel nature of the combination may present regulatory challenges[31].

Synergistic Effects

  • Enhanced Cellular Uptake: Chamomile compounds may facilitate the uptake of AgNPs into fungal cells.
  • Multitarget Approach: The combination targets multiple cellular processes simultaneously, reducing the likelihood of resistance development[30].

Comparison of Chamomile's Antifungal Activity with Conventional Antifungal Medications

Chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) has been used in traditional medicine for centuries. Recent scientific studies have shown that chamomile extracts possess potential antifungal properties, making it an interesting subject for comparison with conventional antifungal medications.


Active Compounds

       
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Spectrum of Activity

Chamomile:

  • Shown activity against Candida albicans, C. krusei, Aspergillus niger, and some dermatophytes
  • Broad but generally weaker activity compared to conventional antifungals[32]

Conventional Antifungals:

  • Specific and potent activity against various fungal species
  • Some are broad-spectrum (e.g., amphotericin B), others are more targeted

Side Effects and Toxicity[33]

Chamomile:

    • Generally considered safe, with minimal side effects
    • Potential for allergic reactions in individuals sensitive to plants in the Asteraceae family
    • Long-term safety profile for high-dose antifungal use not well established

Conventional Antifungals:

  • Well-documented side effect profiles
  • Some have significant toxicity (e.g., nephrotoxicity with amphotericin B)
  • Drug-drug interactions, especially with azoles

Silver Nanoparticles

Silver nanoparticles are incredibly small particles of silver, ranging in size from one to one hundred nanometres. These tiny wonders have unique properties which make them highly useful in various fields.

Distinctive Characteristics

 When compared to bulk silver, these nanoparticles have various physical, chemical, and biological traits:[13] High surface area to volume ratio: Silver nanoparticles have a large surface area relative to their size, which gives them excellent catalytic and reactive abilities. Superior thermal and electrical conductivity: Despite their minuscule size, silver nanoparticles display impressive heat and electricity transfer capabilities. Antibacterial properties: They can be incorporated into coatings to provide antibacterial properties, particularly beneficial in medical settings.

These nanoparticles have demonstrated potential for various medical uses: [14]

  • Antibacterial agents: Their ability to destroy bacteria makes them valuable for combating infections.
  • Wound healing: Silver nanoparticles can aid in the healing process of wounds.
  • Medication delivery systems: Their small size allows for targeted drug delivery into cells and tissues.

How Do Silver Nanoparticles Work Against Bacteria and fungi? [15]

The small size and high surface area-to-volume ratio of silver nanoparticles contributes to their antibacterial abilities:

  1. Cell wall penetration: Due to their tiny dimensions, silver nanoparticles can breach bacterial cell walls.
  2. Cell membrane damage: Once inside, these nanoparticles can disrupt the integrity of bacterial cell membranes.
  3. DNA interaction: Silver nanoparticles can interact with bacteria's DNA, hindering their replication process.

Advantages in Medicine [16]

Silver nanoparticles offer several advantages when used in medical applications:

  1. Broad-spectrum antibacterial activity: Unlike traditional antibiotics that only target specific types of bacteria, silver nanoparticles can be effective against various microorganisms such as fungi, viruses, and bacteria.
  2. Prevention of bacterial colonization: By incorporating silver nanoparticles into wound dressings, implant coatings, and surgical tools, it is possible to inhibit the growth of bacteria and reduce the risk of infection.
  3. Potential alternative to antibiotics: With their low toxicity to human cells at lower concentrations, silver nanoparticles present a viable substitute for conventional antibiotics that may have adverse side effects and contribute to antibiotic resistance.

       
            Screenshot 2024-08-11 002429.png
       

    Fig no 2 View of Silver nanoparticles under the microscope


Ideal properties of silver nanoparticles

  • Silver nanoparticles [17] are very desirable for a variety of applications because they have several excellent features. Several of these attributes consist of:
  1. Tiny Size:

Compared to bulk silver, silver nanoparticles can display special qualities because of their small size, ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers. Because of their small size, they have a high surface area-to-volume ratio, which improves their surface interactions and reactivity.

  1. High Surface Area:

Silver nanoparticles' huge surface area has many active areas for interactions and chemical reactions. Because more surface area it in having higher catalytic activity, this feature is especially helpful in catalytic applications.

  1. Antibacterial and Antifungal Properties:

The antibacterial qualities of silver nanoparticles have evolved a lot in extensive research. They demonstrate potent antibacterial and they work well against a variety of pathogens due to their potent antibacterial and antifungal properties. Applications in medicine, such as antibacterial coatings and wound dressings, benefit greatly from this characteristic.

  1. Optical Characteristics:

Silver nanoparticles have special optical characteristics, such as significant light absorption and scattering. These characteristics have several uses, including surface-enhanced spectroscopy, imaging, and sensing.

It is significant to remember that the optimum characteristics of silver nanoparticles can change based on the particular use and intended result.[18]


       
            Screenshot 2024-08-11 002634.png
       

    Fig no 3 Application of silver nanoparticles


Formulation of silver nanoparticles [19]

There are many approaches used in the formulation of silver nanoparticles, each with pros and cons. The following are some frequently employed methods in the synthesis of silver nanoparticles:

  1. Chemical Reduction process

In this process, a stabilizing agent is used in combination with a reducing agent to reduce a silver salt, such as silver nitrate (AgNO3). The reducing agent, like sodium citrate or sodium borohydride (NaBH4), breaks down the silver ions into silver nanoparticles. Agglomeration or aggregation of the nanoparticles is hindered by the stabilizing agent. With this technique, the size and form of the nanoparticles may be precisely controlled.

  1. Physical Vapour Deposition:

Using this technique, the silver vapor is condensed onto a substrate under carefully regulated conditions to produce silver nanoparticles. This method is frequently used to produce high purity.

  1. Electrochemical Process: [20]

In electrochemical processes, silver ions are reduced at the electrode surface to create silver nanoparticles. Techniques like electrochemical reduction and electrodeposition can be used to accomplish this.

  1. Green Synthesis: [21]

To decrease silver ions and create silver nanoparticles, the green synthesis method makes use of natural sources like plant extracts or microorganisms. These techniques are thought to be safe for the environment and provide a sustainable method of creating nanoparticles.  Natural sources of phytochemicals or biomolecules have reducing and stabilizing properties. Because of their potential for large-scale production and lower environmental impact.

Green Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles

Silver nanoparticles' small size particles and high surface area-to-volume ratio provide them with antibacterial characteristics. Silver nanoparticles can breach cell walls and damage cell membranes in bacteria and other microorganisms, which results in cell death. [22] Furthermore, bacteria' DNA can interact with silver nanoparticles, preventing them from replicating and ultimately leading to cell death. Silver nanoparticles' antibacterial qualities have various advantages in medicinal applications. Silver nanoparticles, for instance, can be added to wound dressings to encourage healing and prevent infection. Additionally, they can be utilized in implant coatings and surgical tools to stop bacterial colonization and lower the risk of infection. Silver nanoparticles have also evolved promise in the fields of cancer treatment, drug transport, and diagnostic imaging. The broad-spectrum antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles is one of their key benefits when used in medicinal applications. Silver nanoparticles can be useful against a variety of microorganisms, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, in contrast to conventional antibiotics, which are only effective against certain kinds of bacteria. [23]This makes them helpful in circumstances where it is difficult or impossible to treat an infection with conventional antibiotics due to the unique type of bacterium causing it. The low toxicity of silver nanoparticles to human cells is another benefit of their use in medicine. At lower concentrations, silver nanoparticles are typically regarded as safe for use in medical applications, even though they can be hazardous to specific types of cells in high quantities.



       
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Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles:

A growing number of fields have expressed interest in silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) because of their special physicochemical characteristics and their uses. Nevertheless, detailed characterization is necessary to comprehend the behavior, biodistribution, safety, and effectiveness of AgNPs. [24] AgNP characterization is crucial for several reasons. It helps scientists to comprehend the physicochemical characteristics of AgNPs, which have a major impact on their behavior and interactions in biological and environmental systems. These characteristics include size, shape, surface charge, and composition. Second, characterization makes it easier to evaluate how bio-distribution occurs within living things, guaranteeing secure and reliable applications in fields like medication administration and health diagnostics. Furthermore, it is essential to comprehend the safety profile of AgNPs to minimize any possible negative consequences.  Organoleptic features include appearance, texture, stability, safety, and odor. The thorough characterization of AgNPs is accomplished by the application of numerous analytical techniques. These methods offer insightful information about the structural, chemical, and physical characteristics of nanoparticles.[25] Among the methods that are most frequently employed are:

  1. UV-VIS Spectroscopy:

This method is used to examine the optical characteristics of AgNPs, such as their absorption and scattering patterns, which reveal details on their stability and size.

  1. X-ray diffraction (XRD):

XRD is used to identify distinct crystallographic phases and their stability by determining the crystalline structure and phase composition of AgNPs.

  1. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): 

AgNPs' surface functional groups and chemical makeup are examined using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), [26]which sheds light on the particles' surface chemistry and possible interactions with biomolecules. In the characterization of nanoparticles, FTIR Spectroscopy proves to be a potent instrument that provides accuracy, repeatability, and a good signal-to-noise ratio. It makes it easier to use difference spectroscopy to separate functional residues from background absorption by allowing the identification of even the smallest variations in absorbance. One particularly interesting application of FTIR is to study how biomolecules are involved in the creation of nanoparticles, which has important implications for both academia and industry. It can be used to investigate materials at the nanoscale, verify functional compounds grafted onto nanoparticles, or clarify catalytic mechanisms. The ability to determine chemical properties on polymer surfaces is made easier by the introduction of Attenuated Total Reflection (ATR)-FTIR spectroscopy, which further improves FTIR capabilities.

  1. Dynamic light scattering (DLS):

AgNPs' size distribution and zeta potential in solution are measured using dynamic light scattering (DLS), which offers insights into the particles' stability and aggregation behavior. An important method for evaluating nanoparticle size distributions between 2 and 500 nm is dynamic light scattering (DLS). It works by primarily using Rayleigh scattering from suspended nanoparticles to analyze the light scattered from a laser passing through a colloid. The assessment of particle hydrodynamic size is made possible by the time-varying modulation of scattered light intensity. When assessing a nanomaterial's potential for toxicity, DLS is crucial, particularly for solution-based characterization. Although DLS is non-destructive and can analyze many particles at once, it has several sample-specific limitations, such as the propensity to yield a bigger size compared to TEM.

  1. Two types of electron microscopy are transmission (TEM) and scanning (SEM):

AgNPs' morphology, size, and form may be seen at high resolution using imaging techniques like SEM and TEM, which enables in-depth structural investigation. One of the mainstays of high-resolution microscopy methods, scanning electron microscopy (SEM)[27] propels advances in nanoscience and nanotechnology. SEM offers detailed surface imaging capabilities by probing objects at micro and nanoscales with highly powerful electron beams. The sensitivity of SEM to size distributions, forms of nanomaterials, surface morphology, and Brownian motion effects make it an essential tool for characterizing nanoparticles in comparison to Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM).


       
            Screenshot 2024-08-11 002836.png
       

    Fig no 4 Characterization of AgNPs


ANTIFUNGAL ACTIVITY OF CHAMOMILE

The cup-plate technique was used to determine the antifungal activity of different formulations in a laboratory setting (in vitro).[28] Here's how the experiment was conducted:

  1. Preparation of Sabouraud Dextrose Agar Media:
  • Dissolve 5.5 g of Sabouraud dextrose agar in 100 mL of distilled water while continuously heating and stirring.
  • Boil the solution for 1 minute to ensure complete dissolution of the powder.
  • Adjust the pH of the media to 5.5.
  • Autoclave the prepared media at 121 °C for 15 minutes to sterilize it.
  • Pour the sterilized Sabouraud dextrose agar media into Petri dishes under aseptic conditions and allow them to solidify.
  • Use a sterile cork borer to create small holes on the surface of the agar plate.

2. Inoculation and Placement of Samples:

  • Apply Candida albicans onto the surface of the agar media by streaking.
  • Create small holes with a diameter of 8 mm in all three Petri dishes using a sterile cork borer.
  • Place the following samples in the respective dishes:
  • Dish 1: 6 µg of chamomile extract 1% w/w NPs
  • Dish 2: 6 µg of chamomile NPs (0.25% w/w)
  • Dish 3: 6 µg of chamomile NPs
  • Allow at least 30 minutes for the samples to diffuse into the agar media.

3.Incubation and Measurement:

  • Incubate the Petri dishes at a temperature of 25 ± 1 °C for 24 hours.
  • After incubation, measure the most consistent outer diameter of the zone of inhibition using a vernier caliper.[29]
  • Record the diameter of the zones, including the well.
  • This entire process was repeated three times (triplicate) to ensure accurate and reproducible results.

Challenges and Future Directions in the Development of Antifungal Nanoparticle-Based Transdermal Patches

Formulation Challenges

  • Achieving optimal drug loading and encapsulation efficiency
  • Ensuring uniform distribution of nanoparticles within the patch matrix
  • Developing biocompatible and skin-friendly adhesives and polymers

Skin Permeation

    • Overcoming the skin barrier for effective nanoparticle penetration
    • Controlling the rate and extent of nanoparticle release[35]
    • Minimizing potential skin irritation or sensitization

Efficacy and Safety

  • Demonstrating superior efficacy compared to conventional formulations
  • Addressing concerns about long-term silver accumulation in the body
  • Ensuring stability and activity of chamomile extract components[36]

Regulatory Challenges

    • Meeting regulatory requirements for both nanoparticle-based products and transdermal systems
    • Establishing appropriate quality control measures
    • Addressing potential environmental impacts of nanoparticle-containing products[37]

Eco-friendly Approaches

    • Developing biodegradable patch materials to minimize environmental impact
    • Exploring the use of other medicinal plant extracts in combination with or as alternatives to silver
    • Investigating closed-loop recycling systems for patch components[38]

CONCLUTION

In this article, we have studied the chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla) plant, its antifungal activity, benefits of the plant, silver nanoparticles properties, their formulation especially green synthesis and characterization along the transdermal drug delivery system. Nanoparticles are the safest and most efficient way for a transdermal drug delivery system. The silver nanoparticle obtained from the chamomile plant showed excellent antimicrobial activity. The chamomile extract incorporated silver nanoparticles was formulated, characterized, and concluded.

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  19. Scalia S, Giuffreda L, Pallado P. Analytical and preparative supercritical fluid extraction of chamomile flowers and its comparison with conventional methods. Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis. 1999 Nov 2;21(3):549-58.
  20. Sah A, Naseef PP, Kuruniyan MS, Jain GK, Zakir F, Aggarwal G. A comprehensive study of therapeutic applications of chamomile. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Feb 9];15(10):1284. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/15/10/1284
  21. Zadeh JB, Kor NM, Kor ZM. Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) as a valuable medicinal plant. International journal of Advanced Biological and Biomedical Research. 2014;2(3):823-9.
  22. Das S, Horváth B, Šafranko S, Joki? S, Széchenyi A, K?szegi T. Antimicrobial activity of chamomile essential oil: Effect of different formulations. Molecules. 2019 Nov 26;24(23):4321.
  23. Roby MH, Sarhan MA, Selim KA, Khalel KI. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil and extracts of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.) and chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.). Industrial crops and products. 2013 Jan 1;44:437-45.
  24. Rafique M, Sadaf I, Rafique MS, Tahir MB. A review on green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their applications. Artificial cells, nanomedicine, and biotechnology. 2017 Oct 3;45(7):1272-91.
  25. Forough M, Farhadi K. Biological and green synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Turkish journal of engineering and environmental sciences. 2010 Dec 1;34(4):281-7.
  26. Khan Z, Al-Thabaiti SA, Obaid AY, Al-Youbi AO. Preparation and characterization of silver nanoparticles by chemical reduction method. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2011 Feb 1;82(2):513-7.
  27. Gurunathan S, Kalishwaralal K, Vaidyanathan R, Venkataraman D, Pandian SR, Muniyandi J, Hariharan N, Eom SH. Biosynthesis, purification, and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Escherichia coli. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2009 Nov 1;74(1):328-35.
  28. Zhou YG, Rees NV, Compton RG. The electrochemical detection and characterization of silver nanoparticles in aqueous solution. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2011 Apr 20;18(50):4219-
  29. Žlabur JŠ, Žuti? I, Radman S, Pleša M, Brn?i? M, Barba FJ, Rocchetti G, Lucini L, Lorenzo JM, Domínguez R, Rimac Brn?i? S. Effect of different green extraction methods and solvents on bioactive components of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) flowers. Molecules. 2020 Feb 13;25(4):810.
  30. Rai, M., Yadav, A., & Gade, A. (2009). Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnology Advances, 27(1), 76-83.
  31. Sriramulu, M., & Sumathi, S. (2017). Photocatalytic, antifungal and antibacterial activity of Phyllanthus emblica mediated ZnO nanoparticles and its biological applications. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 63, 127-136.
  32. Lara, H. H., Romero-Urbina, D. G., Pierce, C., Lopez-Ribot, J. L., Arellano-Jiménez, M. J., & Jose-Yacaman, M. (2015). Effect of silver nanoparticles on Candida albicans biofilms: an ultrastructural study. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 13(1), 91.
  33. Srivastava, J. K., & Gupta, S. (2009). Extraction, characterization, stability and biological activity of flavonoids isolated from chamomile flowers. Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, 1(3), 138.
  34. Rai, M., Ingle, A. P., Birla, S., Yadav, A., & Santos, C. A. (2016). Strategic role of selected noble metal nanoparticles in medicine. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 42(5), 696-719.
  35. Kaur, I. P., Kakkar, V., Deol, P. K., Yadav, M., Singh, M., & Sharma, I. (2019). Issues and concerns in nanotech product development and its commercialization. Journal of Controlled Release, 299, 213-237.
  36. Patra, J. K., Das, G., Fraceto, L. F., Campos, E. V. R., del Pilar Rodriguez-Torres, M., Acosta-Torres, L. S., ... & Shin, H. S. (2018). Nano based drug delivery systems: recent developments and future prospects. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 16(1), 71.
  37. Kaushik, A., Jayant, R. D., Nikkhah-Moshaie, R., Bhardwaj, V., Roy, U., Huang, Z., ... & Nair, M. (2016). Magnetically guided central nervous system delivery and toxicity evaluation of magneto-electric nanocarriers. Scientific Reports, 6, 25309.

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  17. Zhang X-F, Liu Z-G, Shen W, Gurunathan S. Silver nanoparticles: Synthesis, characterization, properties, applications, and therapeutic approaches. Int J Mol Sci . 2016 [cited 2024 Feb 9];17(9):1534. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms17091534
  18. Medcraveonline.com. [cited 2024 Feb 9]. Available from: https://medcraveonline.com/IJBSBE/synthesis-and-characterization-of-silver-nanoparticles-and-their-application-as-an-antibacterial-agent.html
  19. Scalia S, Giuffreda L, Pallado P. Analytical and preparative supercritical fluid extraction of chamomile flowers and its comparison with conventional methods. Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis. 1999 Nov 2;21(3):549-58.
  20. Sah A, Naseef PP, Kuruniyan MS, Jain GK, Zakir F, Aggarwal G. A comprehensive study of therapeutic applications of chamomile. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) [Internet]. 2022 [cited 2024 Feb 9];15(10):1284. Available from: https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8247/15/10/1284
  21. Zadeh JB, Kor NM, Kor ZM. Chamomile (Matricaria recutita) as a valuable medicinal plant. International journal of Advanced Biological and Biomedical Research. 2014;2(3):823-9.
  22. Das S, Horváth B, Šafranko S, Joki? S, Széchenyi A, K?szegi T. Antimicrobial activity of chamomile essential oil: Effect of different formulations. Molecules. 2019 Nov 26;24(23):4321.
  23. Roby MH, Sarhan MA, Selim KA, Khalel KI. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of essential oil and extracts of fennel (Foeniculum vulgare L.) and chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.). Industrial crops and products. 2013 Jan 1;44:437-45.
  24. Rafique M, Sadaf I, Rafique MS, Tahir MB. A review on green synthesis of silver nanoparticles and their applications. Artificial cells, nanomedicine, and biotechnology. 2017 Oct 3;45(7):1272-91.
  25. Forough M, Farhadi K. Biological and green synthesis of silver nanoparticles. Turkish journal of engineering and environmental sciences. 2010 Dec 1;34(4):281-7.
  26. Khan Z, Al-Thabaiti SA, Obaid AY, Al-Youbi AO. Preparation and characterization of silver nanoparticles by chemical reduction method. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2011 Feb 1;82(2):513-7.
  27. Gurunathan S, Kalishwaralal K, Vaidyanathan R, Venkataraman D, Pandian SR, Muniyandi J, Hariharan N, Eom SH. Biosynthesis, purification, and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Escherichia coli. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2009 Nov 1;74(1):328-35.
  28. Zhou YG, Rees NV, Compton RG. The electrochemical detection and characterization of silver nanoparticles in aqueous solution. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2011 Apr 20;18(50):4219-
  29. Žlabur JŠ, Žuti? I, Radman S, Pleša M, Brn?i? M, Barba FJ, Rocchetti G, Lucini L, Lorenzo JM, Domínguez R, Rimac Brn?i? S. Effect of different green extraction methods and solvents on bioactive components of chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla L.) flowers. Molecules. 2020 Feb 13;25(4):810.
  30. Rai, M., Yadav, A., & Gade, A. (2009). Silver nanoparticles as a new generation of antimicrobials. Biotechnology Advances, 27(1), 76-83.
  31. Sriramulu, M., & Sumathi, S. (2017). Photocatalytic, antifungal and antibacterial activity of Phyllanthus emblica mediated ZnO nanoparticles and its biological applications. Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, 63, 127-136.
  32. Lara, H. H., Romero-Urbina, D. G., Pierce, C., Lopez-Ribot, J. L., Arellano-Jiménez, M. J., & Jose-Yacaman, M. (2015). Effect of silver nanoparticles on Candida albicans biofilms: an ultrastructural study. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 13(1), 91.
  33. Srivastava, J. K., & Gupta, S. (2009). Extraction, characterization, stability and biological activity of flavonoids isolated from chamomile flowers. Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, 1(3), 138.
  34. Rai, M., Ingle, A. P., Birla, S., Yadav, A., & Santos, C. A. (2016). Strategic role of selected noble metal nanoparticles in medicine. Critical Reviews in Microbiology, 42(5), 696-719.
  35. Kaur, I. P., Kakkar, V., Deol, P. K., Yadav, M., Singh, M., & Sharma, I. (2019). Issues and concerns in nanotech product development and its commercialization. Journal of Controlled Release, 299, 213-237.
  36. Patra, J. K., Das, G., Fraceto, L. F., Campos, E. V. R., del Pilar Rodriguez-Torres, M., Acosta-Torres, L. S., ... & Shin, H. S. (2018). Nano based drug delivery systems: recent developments and future prospects. Journal of Nanobiotechnology, 16(1), 71.
  37. Kaushik, A., Jayant, R. D., Nikkhah-Moshaie, R., Bhardwaj, V., Roy, U., Huang, Z., ... & Nair, M. (2016). Magnetically guided central nervous system delivery and toxicity evaluation of magneto-electric nanocarriers. Scientific Reports, 6, 25309.

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Nagalakshmi.R.Reddy
Corresponding author

The Oxford College of Pharmacy

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Kruthika S. G.
Co-author

The Oxford College of Pharmacy

Photo
Manohar K.
Co-author

The Oxford College of Pharmacy

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Kruthic Revanth
Co-author

The Oxford College of Pharmacy

Photo
Manoj Kumar
Co-author

The Oxford College of Pharmacy

Photo
Madhushree R.
Co-author

The Oxford College of Pharmacy

Nagalakshmi R. Reddy , Kruthika S. G. , Manohar K. , Kruthic Revanth, Madhushree R, Manoj Kumar , A Detailed Review On Green Synthesis Of Silver Nanoparticles Of Chamomile Extract With Antifungal Properties , Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2024, Vol 2, Issue 8, 2941-2956. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13293136

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