Amorphophallus paeoniifolius: An Omnidimensional Review Covering Botanical Description, Phytochemical Diversity, Nutritional Benefits and Medicinal Applications

Abstract

The lesser-known aroid plant Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, also referred to as “Jimikand” or “Elephant Foot Yam,” is a member of the Araceae family. It is a commercially important vegetable crop due to its high productivity, ultimately that is cultivated commercially in some tropical and subtropical areas, including India, China, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, and in tropical regions of Africa. This sturdy and tuberous herb has long been utilized in Ayurvedic medicine to cure a wide range of illnesses, it is an important source of protein, starch, and other nutrients. The tuber of Amorphophallus paeoniifolius contain phytoconstituents like alkaloids, steroids, fats and fixed oil, flavonoids, tannins, proteins and carbohydrates. The goal of this review is to compile the body of knowledge regarding the plant's botanical traits, nutritional profile, phytochemical components, and traditional uses, and it also addresses the diverse therapeutic applications of the plant, encompassing antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, analgesic, antimicrobial, and anthelmintic activity.

Keywords

Introduction

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, belonging to the Araceae family, is a perennial herbaceous plantthat typically grows in shaded mountainous regions and is primarily found across Southeast Asia and Africa. This native, deciduous, and tuberous herb is widely cultivated as a vegetable throughout India [1]. Food and medicine are basic and primary requirements for human beings. Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, a well-known tuberous plant, is rich in both primary and secondary metabolites, offering significant nutritional value. It serves as a potential solution to food shortages and acts as a natural remedy for various diseases [2]. Known by multiple names such as Elephant foot yam, Jimikand, Suran and Suvarna gedde, the plant's edible parts—including the tuber, petiole, and immature inflorescence—are commonly used in cooking. Notably, the tuber has an impressive nutritional profile, being rich in carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins, minerals, flavonoids, and dietary fibers [3]. The plant thrives in tropical and subtropical climates with warm temperatures and adequate rainfall. It is primarily propagated through tuber pieces. The plant typically reaches a height of 1.5 to 2 meters [4]. The presence of numerous active phytoconstituents in Amorphophallus paeoniifolius contributes to its wide range of pharmacological properties. Traditionally, it has been used in the treatment of various diseases and ailments. Studies have demonstrated its antibacterial, antidiarrheal, anthelmintic, antihyperlipidemic, analgesic, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities [5].

This review provides a detailed account of the plant’s biology, highlights the various phytoconstituents it contains, and outlines its diverse pharmacological applications.

Table 1: TAXONOMY [6]

Kingdom	Plantae
Sub kingdom	Tracheobionta
Division	Magnoliophyta
Class	Liliopsida
Order	Alismatles
Family	Araceae
Genus	Amorphophallus
Species	paeoniifolius

Table 2:  VERNACULAR NAMES [7]

English	Elephant foot yam, White spot giant arum
Sanskrit	Soorana
Kannada	Suvarna gedde
Hindi	Jimikand, Suran
Bengali	Mochara, Ol-kachu
Malayalam	Chena
Oriya	Piaja

DISTRIBUTION [8]

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, also called as elephant foot yam, is native tropical tuberous plant, originated in the tropical regions of Asia and has a wide distribution across the world. It is extensively cultivated in India, both in home gardens and commercially, and it also occurs naturally in countries of Southeast Asia, including Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. The plant is found in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, where it grows either as a native or naturalized species. Beyond Asia, it has been introduced to parts of Africa, particularly in West and East African nations, and to several tropical Pacific islands such as Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and the Solomon Islands. A. paeoniifolius thrives in warm, humid climates with temperatures between 25–35 °C and annual rainfall exceeding 1000 mm, typically preferring shaded or semi-shaded environments like forest understoreys or plantation edges. In India, its cultivation is widespread in almost all states, with particularly high production in southern and northeastern regions. Its adaptability to various tropical and subtropical environments has enabled it to spread globally. This wide distribution supports its importance as both a food crop and a medicinal plant in diverse cultures.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT [6,9]

Stem:

In Amorphophallus paeoniifolius plant the stem is actually a pseudo stem, derived from petiole of the leaf. This is because the plant emerges from an underground tuber, and it does not produces a true aerial stem. It is erect, stout and fleshy often reaching a height of 1 to 1.5 meters. It is mottled with green and purplish or whiteish patches. It provides structural and mechanical support also aids in water and nutrient transport from tuber to the leaf.

Leaves:

This plant contains Tripartite, highly dissected compound leaf, large often spreading 50 -100 cm in diameter. Anatomically, the leaf has an upper and lower epidermis covered with cuticle and contains stomata, particularly on the lower surface.

Fig.1: Amorphophallus paeoniifolius plant

Fig.2: Amorphophallus paeoniifolius tuber

Tuber:

The tuber of Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is large, globose to depressed-globose, or sometimes irregularly oblong depending on the age and growing conditions. It is dark brown to greyish in colour, often rough and warty in texture, with numerous buds or eyes that have the potential to give rise to new shoots. The size of the tuber can vary greatly, often reaching several kilograms in weight under favourable conditions. It serves as the main storage organ for nutrients, enabling the plant to survive dormant periods and regenerate in the next growing season. The outer surface is typically covered with fibrous roots and soil particles, while the inner flesh is firm, starchy, and off-white to cream in colour. Its high starch content makes it a valuable food source, although it requires proper processing to remove calcium oxalate crystals that cause acridity. Additionally, the tuber plays a significant role in vegetative propagation, as pieces with buds can develop into new plants.

Flower:

The inflorescence emerges in the early part of the growing season, typically before or without the development of leaves. It is composed of two main structures: the spathe, which is a large, often funnel-shaped bract, and the spadix, a fleshy central axis bearing the flowers. The spathe is usually greenish to purplish on the outside and deep purple to maroon on the inside, emitting a strong odour to attract pollinators such as flies and beetles. Flowering is a short-lived event, after which the spathe withers, and the plant directs its energy toward leaf development and tuber growth.

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS [5]

The tuber of Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is known to possess a rich profile of phytochemicals and nutrients that contribute to its medicinal value. Among the phytochemicals identified are diterpenoids, triterpenoids, triacontane, saponins, rutin, lupeol, betulinic acid, gallic acid, resveratrol, quercetin, stigmasterol, β-sitosterol, and its palmitate. In addition to these bioactive compounds, the tuber also contains significant amounts of essential nutrients such as thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, carotene, glucose, galactose, rhamnose, and xylose. The presence of these diverse and potent phytochemicals and nutrients is believed to underlie the plant’s wide spectrum of pharmacological activities. These findings lend strong scientific support to the traditional use of elephant foot yam in the management and treatment of numerous health disorders, including inflammatory, metabolic, and gastrointestinal conditions.

Fig.3: Major Chemical constituents of Amorphophallus paeoniifolius

TRADITIONAL USES

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius (elephant foot yam) holds significant medicinal, nutritional, cultural, and ornamental value across various traditional systems such as Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani. The tuber, leaves, and stem are widely used to treat digestive ailments including piles, constipation, and dyspepsia, while also being employed in the management of respiratory disorders like asthma and bronchitis. In folk medicine, it is prescribed for rheumatism, joint pain, and inflammation, and is recognized as an aphrodisiac used to address certain sexual health concerns. Additionally, the plant is believed to enhance appetite, act as a carminative, and aid in detoxification of the body [10]. When properly cooked or processed to remove calcium oxalate crystals, the tuber is edible and features prominently in Indian and Southeast Asian cuisines under names such as suran or giant foot yam. Nutritionally, it is rich in dietary fiber, complex carbohydrates, and essential micronutrients, and its low glycaemic index makes it suitable for diabetic-friendly diets in traditional food practices. Culturally, the tuber is considered sacred in parts of India, often offered to Goddess Durga during Navratri, and is associated with ritual purity and festive meals. Horticulturally, it is valued as an ornamental plant for its large, umbrella-like foliage and striking inflorescence, which, despite emitting a strong odour, attracts attention in gardens and botanical collections. Its diverse uses, spanning medicine, nutrition, culture, and aesthetics, have secured its place as an important multipurpose plant in both rural traditions and modern horticulture [11].

PHARMACOLOGICAL USES

1. Gastroprotective activity [12]:

The gastroprotective activity of A. paeoniifolius was studied using a pylorus ligation- convinced ulcer model in albino rats. Free revolutionaries are known to play a significant part in ulcer conformation, and the polyphenols present in the corm retain potent antioxidant and anti-ulcer parcels. Rats were treated with methanolic corm excerpt at boluses of 250 mg/ kg and 500 mg/ kg, and the results were compared with a standard anti-ulcer medicine, lansoprazole. The excerpt significantly increased gastric mucosal glutathione (GSH) situations, indicating enhanced antioxidant defence, and reduced lipid peroxidation, showing protection against oxidative damage. Also, it lowered gastric juice volume and total acidity, thereby reducing the aggressive factors involved in ulcerogenesis. Both boluses of the excerpt markedly dropped ulcer scores, with protection situations of 67 for 250 mg/ kg and 85.5 for 500 mg/ kg. The advanced cure displayed slightly lesser protection than lansoprazole, which showed 80.5 ulcer inhibition.

2. Anticancer activity [13]:

The edible tuber A. paeoniifolius contains bioactive compounds with potential anti-cancer activity. Methanolic extract of the tuber was evaluated against human breast cancer cell lines to assess its cytotoxic effects. The extract considerably reduces cancer cell viability in a dose-dependent form. Morphological changes such as cell shrinkage and membrane blebbing indicated apoptosis induction. Flow cytometry analysis confirmed increased apoptotic cell population after treatment. The extract also suppressed migration of breast cancer cells, suggesting anti-metastatic potential. Its mechanism is likely linked to activation of apoptosis-related pathways and inhibition of cell motility processes. The anti-proliferative effect may be attributed to phenolic compounds and other secondary metabolites in the tuber. These findings indicate that A. paeoniifolius could serve as a natural source of anti-cancer agents. Further in-vivo and clinical studies are needed to validate its therapeutic potential against breast cancer

3. Antimicrobial activity [14]:

The phytochemical analysis of A. paeoniifolius extract revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, saponins, glycosides, and phenolic composites. Methanolic and waterless excerpts were prepared from the corm for evaluation. In - vitro antioxidant exertion was estimated using DPPH free revolutionary scavenging assay, with results showing cure - dependent exertion. The methanolic excerpt displayed strong antioxidant eventuality with an IC ?? value around 52 µg/ mL, compared to the standard ascorbic acid IC ?? of 45 µg/ mL. Total phenolic content was advanced in the methanolic excerpt, relating with lesser antioxidant exertion. Antibacterial testing by agar well prolixity system showed that the methanolic excerpt had significant inhibitory goods against Gram - positive bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus and Gram - negative bacteria like Escherichia coli. The zones of inhibition was observed and found to increase with cure, with 200 µg/ mL excerpt producing maximum exertion. The waterless excerpt also showed antibacterial action but was less potent than the methanolic excerpt. The bioactivity is probably due to its high phenolic and flavonoid content, supporting its implicit use in medicinal and nutraceutical phrasings.

4. Antidiabetic activity [15]:

The tuber of A. paeoniifolius was found to be rich in carbohydrates, proteins, minerals such as potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and iron, as well as dietary fiber. In alloxan-induced diabetic rats, dietary supplementation with powdered tuber significantly reduced fasting blood glucose levels in a dose-dependent manner. Feeding at 0.1% and 0.25% of diet, corresponding to approximately 125?mg/kg and 250?mg/kg body weight, produced marked antihyperglycemic effects. The lower dose reduced blood glucose by about 23%, while the higher dose achieved a 37% reduction compared to diabetic controls, with aminoguanidine (standard drug) showing a 45% reduction. In addition, the tuber supplementation improved intestinal disaccharidase activities, with maltase, sucrase, and lactase activities increasing by 18–26% at the lower dose and 45–52% at the higher dose. Similar restoration of enzyme activity was also observed in the kidneys. The antidiabetic potential is attributed to the tuber’s high fiber and zinc content, along with phytochemicals that may aid in pancreatic β-cell recovery and enhance carbohydrate metabolism. Overall, dietary inclusion of A. paeoniifolius at 0.1–0.25% of the diet (≈125–250?mg/kg) effectively improved glycemic control and carbohydrate digestion in diabetic rats. These findings highlight its potential as a functional food or nutraceutical for diabetes management.

5. Anti-inflammatory activity [16]:

The anti-inflammatory activity of A. paeoniifolius tuber was evaluated in an acetic acid–induced ulcerative colitis model in Wistar rats. Methanolic and aqueous extracts were administered orally at doses of 250?mg/kg and 500?mg/kg for seven consecutive days, with prednisolone (4?mg/kg) as the standard drug. Both extracts significantly reduced the severity of colitis, as indicated by improved stool consistency, reduced bleeding, and decreased ulcer index compared to untreated controls. Biochemical markers of inflammation, such as myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, serum alkaline phosphatase, and lactate dehydrogenase, were significantly lowered in extract-treated groups. The extracts also inhibited lipid peroxidation and restored antioxidant defence systems, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels in colonic tissues. Higher dose (500?mg/kg) groups showed greater improvement in all parameters than the 250?mg/kg dose, indicating a clear dose-dependent effect. Histopathological studies revealed that extract-treated rats had preserved mucosal architecture with minimal inflammatory infiltration, unlike the severe mucosal damage seen in the colitis control group. The protective effects are attributed to the presence of phytochemicals such as flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and botulinic acid, which possess strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Acute toxicity studies confirmed the safety of the extract at doses up to 2000?mg/kg, suggesting a wide safety margin. Overall, A. paeoniifolius tuber extracts at 250–500?mg/kg demonstrated potent anti-inflammatory effects comparable to prednisolone in experimental ulcerative colitis.

6. Analgesic activity [17]:

The analgesic potential of the aqueous extract of A. paeoniifolius tuber was evaluated in Swiss albino mice using acetic acid-induced writhing and hot-plate methods. The extract was administered orally at doses of 200?mg/kg and 400?mg/kg, while diclofenac sodium (25?mg/kg) served as the standard drug. In the writhing test, both doses significantly reduced the number of abdominal constrictions compared to the control group. The percentage inhibition of writhing was 43.7% for the 200?mg/kg dose and 46.1% for the 400?mg/kg dose, compared to 54.4% inhibition with diclofenac. In the hot-plate test, the extract significantly increased the reaction time to thermal pain stimuli in a dose-dependent manner. The higher dose (400?mg/kg) produced greater latency in pain response than the lower dose, indicating stronger analgesic action. These results suggest that the extract exhibits both peripheral analgesic activity (likely through inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis) and central analgesic activity (possibly via opioid receptor modulation). Phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds in the tuber are believed to contribute to this effect. Overall, A. paeoniifolius aqueous extract at 200–400?mg/kg demonstrated significant analgesic activity in mice, supporting its traditional use for pain relief.

7. Anthelmintic activity [18]:

The anthelmintic potential of methanolic extract of A. paeoniifolius tuber was investigated using in-vitro models with earthworms (Pheretima posthuma) as the experimental species. The extract was prepared and tested at concentrations of 25?mg/mL, 50?mg/mL, and 100?mg/mL, with piperazine citrate (10?mg/mL) serving as the standard reference drug. Observations are carried out by time taken for paralysis and death of the worms. All tested concentrations produced significant anthelmintic effects compared to the control, with activity increasing in a dose-dependent manner. The 100?mg/mL concentration produced the fastest paralysis and death times, closely matching the effect of piperazine citrate. Lower concentrations (25?mg/mL and 50?mg/mL) were less potent but still significantly more effective than control. The activity is believed to be due to the presence of tannins and phenolic compounds, which can bind to glycoproteins on the cuticle of the worms, leading to structural damage and motility impairment. No toxic effects of the extract were observed during the in-vitro testing. Overall, methanolic extract of A. paeoniifolius tuber at 100?mg/mL showed strong vermifuge and vermicidal activity, supporting its traditional use as an anthelmintic. These results suggest that A. paeoniifolius could be a potential natural alternative to synthetic anti-parasitic agents.

8. Antidiarrheal activity [1]:

The antidiarrheal effect of A. paeoniifolius leaf extract was examined in Swiss albino rats using the castor oil–induced diarrhoea model. The ethanolic extract was given orally at doses of 100?mg/kg, 200?mg/kg, and 400?mg/kg prior to diarrhoea induction. All treated groups showed a clear reduction in both the frequency and severity of diarrhoeal stools compared with the control group. The highest protection was observed at 400?mg/kg, which produced a marked decrease in watery stool output. The findings suggest that the extract may slow intestinal transit and reduce excessive fluid secretion in the gut. This activity is believed to be linked to the presence of phytochemicals such as tannins and flavonoids, which are known for their gut-protective and motility-modulating effects. Improvements were dose-dependent, with moderate activity at 200?mg/kg and mild but significant effects at 100?mg/kg. No signs of acute toxicity were reported at the tested doses, indicating good safety margins. These results provide scientific support for the plant’s traditional use in managing diarrhoeal conditions. In summary, A. paeoniifolius leaf extract, particularly at 200–400?mg/kg, demonstrates promising antidiarrheal potential in experimental models.

CONCLUSION

Amorphophallus paeoniifolius is a tropical and subtropical plant of notable botanical, phytochemical, and pharmacological significance. It is distributed across South and Southeast Asia, including India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, and has been introduced to parts of Africa, the Pacific Islands, and the Solomon Islands. The species is rich in bioactive constituents such as alkaloids, tannins, polyphenols, sterols, flavonoids, and terpenoids, which contribute to its diverse pharmacological activities, including anticancer, antidiarrheal, antidiabetic, anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, gastroprotective, and antimicrobial effects. The tuber serves as a valuable dietary source of carbohydrates, proteins, and fiber and is widely consumed as a vegetable. Further research may facilitate the development of novel plant-derived therapeutics from this species.   

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