Herbal Approaches to Psoriasis: Insights into Medicinal Plants and Their Mechanism of Action

Abstract

Excessive keratinocyte proliferation and the development of erythematous plaques with silvery scales are the hallmarks of psoriasis, a chronic immune-mediated inflammatory dermatological disorder, and associated systemic inflammation. The disorder affects nearly 2– 3% of the worldwide population and arises from a complex interplay of genetic predisposition and environmental triggers. Its pathophysiology is primarily driven by immune system dysfunction, involving the activation of T helper cell subsets such as Th1, Th17, and Th22. The activation of immune pathways causes elevated secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-17, IL-23, and TNF-?. Conventional treatment modalities—such as topical corticosteroids, vitamin D analogues, retinoids, systemic immunosuppressive agents, biologic therapies, and phototherapy—are effective in controlling disease symptoms; however, their clinical utility is frequently constrained by adverse effects, high costs, and the requirement for prolonged therapy. These limitations have prompted growing interest in herbal and naturally derived therapeutic options that possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiproliferative activities, often with superior safety profiles. Several medicinal plants, including Aloe vera, Curcuma longa (turmeric), Azadirachta indica (neem), Capsicum annuum (capsaicin), and Mahonia aquifolium (Oregon grape), have demonstrated beneficial effects in attenuating psoriatic inflammation and lesion severity. Novel nano-herbal drug delivery systems like liposomes, ethosomes, and nanostructured lipid carriers have shown promise in enhancing bioavailability, improving site-specific delivery, and decreasing systemic toxicity. The convergence of traditional herbal medicine with contemporary nanotechnological approaches represents a novel, patient-centric strategy for psoriasis management. Nonetheless, comprehensive clinical evaluations, formulation standardization, and rigorous regulatory approval are required to establish therapeutic efficacy, safety, and reproducibility, thereby facilitating the integration of evidence-based herbal interventions into mainstream psoriasis treatment.

Keywords

Introduction

                                  Elbows and knees                              Facial area and within the oral cavity.

                                               Scalp                                                Fingernails and toenails

                                            Lower back                                            Palms and soles of the feet.

Figure No.1: Parts of body affected by psoriasis

Figure no2: Pathophysiology of psoriasis

3. Potential of Herbal Medicines in the Treatment of Psoriasis.

1. Psoriasis is a long-standing chronic disorder that frequently necessitates continuous, lifelong management. Consequently, therapeutic interventions must comply with stringent standards of quality, efficacy, and patient safety, as emphasized by the World Health Organization (2016). Current treatment strategies for psoriasis predominantly rely on synthetic pharmacological agents. While these therapies are effective in providing symptomatic relief, their long-term use is often associated with a range of adverse effects that may compromise patient safety and treatment adherence.

2. Prolonged administration of corticosteroids has been linked to complications such as gastric ulceration, thinning of the skin and bones, and the development of premature cataracts. Topical vitamin D analogues may cause local skin irritation, whereas extended use of salicylic acid on the scalp has been associated with hair loss. Additionally, coal tar–based formulations can lead to skin dryness and increased photosensitivity. Phototherapy, although effective, requires strict medical supervision due to potential adverse outcomes ranging from acute skin burns to an elevated risk of skin malignancies. Therefore, continuous safety monitoring remains a critical component of psoriasis management.

3. These limitations have driven the development of advanced drug delivery systems capable of sustained drug release and reduced dosing frequency, ultimately enhancing therapeutic efficacy and patient adherence. Alongside these innovations, herbal medicines have gained increasing acceptance among patients due to their perceived safety, widespread availability, cost- effectiveness, improved adherence, and reduced incidence of side effects compared to conventional synthetic therapies. Furthermore, natural products possess substantial molecular diversity and exhibit multi-targeted mechanisms of action, making them attractive candidates for psoriasis treatment. As a result, research efforts have increasingly focused on the development of novel herbal-based therapeutic alternatives. In recent years, the use of herbal medicine has experienced a resurgence owing to its comparatively favorable safety profile. In India, the Ministry of AYUSH serves as the regulatory authority responsible for quality control, preclinical safety assessment, and clinical evaluation of herbal medicines, supported by official guidelines such as the General Guidelines for Drug Development of Ayurvedic Formulations, which ensure the safe use of herbal therapies.[15]

4. Herbal Nano-formulations for the treatment of psoriasis disease

Conventional topical formulations—including gels, ointments, creams, tinctures, and lotions— frequently exhibit inconsistent or suboptimal therapeutic performance in the delivery of natural drugs for psoriasis management. This limitation is largely associated with disruption of the cutaneous barrier in psoriatic skin, particularly the depletion of ceramides, which compromises hydration levels and reduces the skin’s capacity for water retention and absorption. Therefore, to maximize the therapeutic potential of natural medicines, topical formulations must be designed to provide enhanced skin permeability alongside effective moisture-retention properties.

A substantial proportion of herbal drugs possess poor aqueous solubility due to the hydrophobic characteristics of their bioactive constituents, leading to reduced bioavailability and rapid systemic elimination. Consequently, higher or more frequent dosing regimens are often required, thereby limiting their clinical applicability. To overcome these challenges, innovative formulation approaches are essential to improve the solubility of herbal compounds while facilitating localized and sustained drug delivery at the target site, ultimately enhancing therapeutic efficacy and patient compliance.

In recent years, nano- and micro-particulate delivery systems have attracted significant research interest for the administration of herbal therapeutics. These advanced carriers have demonstrated considerable potential in the delivery of bioactive compounds, peptides, proteins, and drugs for various dermatological conditions. Their advantages include improved targeting efficiency, enhanced therapeutic outcomes, reduced dosing requirements, minimized toxicity, and better patient adherence. Numerous herbal active constituents have been successfully encapsulated within diverse particulate systems and subsequently evaluated through biological studies to determine their safety and effectiveness in immune-mediated skin disorders.

Moreover, emerging drug delivery technologies—such as liposomes, lipospheres, nanostructured lipid carriers, nanoemulsions, crystalline systems, nanospheres, niosomes, ethosomes, microneedles, and foam-based formulations—have shown substantial promise in enhancing dermal penetration, improving skin hydration, and enabling targeted delivery of natural therapeutics to specific inflammatory mediators or cytokine-producing cells.[16]

5. Therapeutic Medicinal Plants for Psoriasis Treatment:

Numerous herbal formulations are currently available worldwide for the management of psoriasis. Medicinal plants constitute an important foundation for pharmacological research and drug discovery, as they offer several advantages over conventional synthetic therapies, including a lower incidence of adverse effects, wide accessibility, cost-effectiveness, and improved patient acceptability. Consequently, there is growing research interest in identifying and developing herbal-based therapeutics as viable alternatives to synthetic drugs for psoriasis treatment. The subsequent section discusses selected medicinal plants employed in psoriasis therapy, along with their principal bioactive constituents and corresponding mechanisms of action.

1. Neem:

Common Name: Neem

Botanical Name: Azadiracta indica

Family Name: Meliaceae

Active Constituent: Azadirachtin

Mechanism of action: Azadirachtin penetrates into the deeper layers of the skin, where it contributes to disease resolution, while vitamin E and omega-6 and omega-9 fatty acids present in neem oil provide a moisturizing effect that aids in reducing cutaneous scaling and dryness.[17]

2. Basil:

Common Name: Basil

Botanical Name: Ocimum basilicum L

Family Name: Lamiaceae

Active Constituent: linalool, eugenol, and rosmarinic acid

Mechanism of action: Activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory and immune-related disorders, including osteoporosis, psoriasis, septic shock, and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Previous studies have reported that Ocimum sanctum (holy basil) exhibits notable chemopreventive activity. Ursolic acid, a triterpenoid compound derived from basil and rosemary, has been shown to suppress NF-κB signaling by inhibiting IκB kinase (IKK), thereby downregulating the expression of cyclin D1, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9).[18]

3. Garlic:

Common Name: Garlic

Botanical Name: Allium sativum

Family Name: Amaryllidaceae

Active Constituents: Allin, Allicin

Mechanism of action: Antioxidant activity: Onion-derived antioxidants play a crucial role in mitigating oxidative stress, a pathological factor associated with several dermatological disorders, including psoriasis. This activity supports the maintenance of overall skin integrity and health. Skin repair and regeneration: The topical use of onion extracts or juice has been reported to facilitate cutaneous healing processes and enhance the clinical appearance of psoriatic plaques.[19]

4. Apigenin:

Common Name: Apigenin

Botanical Name: Matricaria chamomilla L

Family Name: Apiaceae.

Active Constituents: Flavonoid apigenin

Mechanism of action: This flavonoid demonstrates multiple pharmacological activities, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, modulation of keratinocyte proliferation and differentiation, inhibition of angiogenesis, and antibacterial action. In vivo studies employing 5 µmol of apigenin—a non-mutagenic plant-derived flavone and a potent inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB)—have shown significant reductions in interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-12 (IL-12) levels in murine models following apigenin administration. These pro- inflammatory cytokines are known to be markedly elevated in psoriatic conditions.[20]

5. Clove:

Common Name: Clove

Botanical Name: Syzgium aromaticum

Family Name: Myrtaceae

Active Constituents: eugenol and isoeugenol

Mechanism of action: By stabilizing IκB, these compounds effectively block nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation. Murakami et al. reported that bis-eugenol, in contrast to eugenol, effectively blocks IκB degradation and consequently reduces the production of inflammatory cytokines at both transcriptional and protein expression levels.[21]

6. Fennel:

Common Name: Fennel

Botanical Name: Foeniculum Vulgare.

Family: Apiaceae

Active constituents: phenyl propanoids anethole and estragole

Mechanism of action: Anethole has been shown to possess significant anti- inflammatory and anticarcinogenic activities, along with pronounced antioxidant properties. Evidence from prior research demonstrates that anethole modulates NF-κB signaling through stabilization of IκB, resulting in reduced NF-κB activation..[22]

7. Turmeric:

Common Name: Turmeric

Botanical Name: Curcuma longa

Family: Zingiberaceae

Active constituents: Curcuminoids, curcumin

Mechanism of action: Curcumin suppresses the activity of the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) protein complex, a key regulator of inflammatory processes involved in the pathophysiology of psoriasis. In addition to its anti-inflammatory effects, curcumin promotes cutaneous wound healing and enhances the regenerative capacity of the skin.[23]

8. Ginseng:

Common name: Asian ginseng, Chinese ginseng.

Botanical Name: Panax ginseng C

Family: Araliaceae

Active constituents: ginsenosides, polysaccharides, polyacetylenes, proteins, lipids

Mechanism of action: These compounds exhibit a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory effects against various immune-mediated disorders. Multiple studies have reported that ginsenosides, also referred to as ginseng polysaccharides (GP), modulate several intracellular signaling pathways, notably those mediated by mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). The MAPK signaling cascade involves sequential activation of key kinases, including p38, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Activation of serine/threonine kinases initiates MAPK signaling, leading to phosphorylation of p38 MAPK, which plays a critical role in both transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulatory processes responsible for the production of inflammatory mediators.[24]

9. Indigo naturalis:

Common Name: Indigo naturalis

Botanical Name: Indigofera tinctoria

Family: Fabaceae

Active constituents: Indirubin

Mechanism of action: Furthermore, it downregulates pro-inflammatory cytokine production, particularly TNF-α and IL-6, while simultaneously decreasing serum monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) levels. In vitro studies further demonstrate that IN suppresses lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced production of TNF-α and IL-6. Indigo and indirubin have been identified as the principal bioactive constituents responsible for these effects.[25]

10. Calendula :

Common Name: Calendula

Botanical Name: calendula officinalis

Family: Asteraceae

Active constituents: quercetin

Mechanism of action: Studies have shown that extracts from Calendula officinalis flowers are effective in both acute and chronic inflammation. Anti-inflammatory activity has been demonstrated in carrageenan- and dextran-induced acute inflammation models, as well as in formalin-induced chronic inflammation models in mice. The effects are chiefly mediated by downregulating pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, and IFN-γ, as well as inhibiting COX-2 activity and reducing prostaglandin output.[26]

11. Mahonia aquifolium:

Common Name: Mahonia aquifolium

Botanical Name: Oregon grape

Family: Berberidaceae

Active constituents: berberine

Mecahnism of action: Berberine has been demonstrated to exert anti-inflammatory activity through multiple mechanisms, including inhibition of lipoxygenase activity and suppression of lipid peroxidation, thereby contributing to its immunomodulatory effects.[27]

12. Aloe vera :

Common Name: Aloe vera

Botanical Name: aloe barbadensis

Family: aspodelaceae

Active constituents: aloin, emodin

Mechanism of action: Various parts of the plant, particularly the gel, exhibit beneficial therapeutic effects. Aloe vera gel has been reported to alleviate erythema and scaling associated with psoriasis. The phytochemical composition of Aloe vera includes anthraquinones, mucopolysaccharides, steroids, saponins, and salicylic acid. Among these constituents, anthraquinones and acemannan are considered the primary active compounds, demonstrating antibacterial properties and therapeutic relevance in the management of psoriasis. Salicylic acid also contributes to the plant’s overall pharmacological activity.[28]

13. Sandalwood :

Common name : Sandalwood

Botanical name : indian sandalwood,, Santalum album

Family: santalaceae

Active constituent: α-santalo,, α-, β-, and epi- β-santalene

Mechanism of action: α-Santalol is the principal compound responsible for the characteristic aroma of sandalwood and has demonstrated the ability to inhibit specific inflammatory pathways, suggesting its potential to alleviate psoriasis-associated complications. The therapeutic profile of sandalwood oil is further supported by the presence of santalenes, including α-, β-, and epi-β-santalene. Beyond its topical effects, the aromatic properties of sandalwood are associated with calming and relaxing responses, which may provide additional benefits in the management of psoriasis.[29]

14. Tea tree oil:

Common Name: Tea tree oil

Botanical Name: Melaleuca alternifolia

Family: Myrtaceae

Active constituents: Terpinen-4-ol, alphaterpineol, alpha-pinene

Mechanism of action: Tea tree oil, which is rich in terpenoid compounds such as terpinen-4-ol, exhibits pronounced anti-inflammatory activity with potential relevance in psoriasis management. In addition, its broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties further enhance its therapeutic value. Tea tree oil also demonstrates immunomodulatory effects, which may contribute to regulating immune responses, thereby limiting excessive keratinocyte proliferation and inflammatory processes characteristic of psoriatic plaques.[30]

15. Liquorice:

Common name: Liquorice

Botanical name: Glycyrrhiza glabra,

Family: leguminasae

Active constituent: glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhizic acid, liquiritin

Mechanism of action: Licorice contains a diverse array of bioactive constituents, including glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhizic acid, and liquiritin, all of which exhibit notable anti- inflammatory activity. These compounds collectively suppress the production of key pro- inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF- α), which play central roles in the pathogenesis of psoriasis. Additionally, licorice-derived constituents modulate the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), a critical regulator of inflammatory signaling, thereby contributing to the protection of skin cells and supporting the healing of psoriatic lesions.[31]

16. Mango:

Common name: Mango

Botanical name: Mangifera indica L.

Family: mangifera

Active constituent: Mangiferin

Mechanism of action:. Previous studies have demonstrated that mangiferin can suppress macrophage-mediated inflammatory responses, thereby modulating skin inflammation. This effect involves the downregulation of pro-inflammatory mediators, including tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), along with major inflammatory biomarkers, including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), interleukin-1β, and interleukin-6, which are implicated in the pathogenesis of psoriatic lesions.[32]

17. Capsicum annuum:

Common name: Capsicum annuum

Botanical name: Capsicum annuum L

Family: Solanaceae

Chemical constituent: capsaicinoids, capsaicin,

Mechanism of action: Neuropeptides and neural markers, including neuropeptide Y, protein gene product 9.5 (PGP-9.5), nerve growth factor (NGF), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and substance P (SP), have been associated with pruritus in psoriasis. Elevated levels of NGF, increased density of PGP-9.5–positive nerve fibers, and a higher number of NGF-immunoreactive keratinocytes have been observed in pruritic skin and are correlated with the severity of itch.[33]

18. Ginger:

Common Name: Ginger

Botanical Name: Zingiber officinale

Family: Zingiberaceae

Chemical constituents: shogaols, gingerols

Mechanism of action: Gingerol has been shown to inhibit the activity of nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), both of which are regulated by nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). Additionally, gingerol may reduce platelet aggregation. Owing to its anti-inflammatory properties, gingerol represents a promising herbal therapeutic candidate for the management of psoriasis.[34]

19. St.john’s wort:

Common Name: St.john’s wort

Botanical Name: Hypericum perforatum

Family: Hypericaceae

Chemical constituents: phloroglucinols

Mechanism of action: The primary bioactive constituents responsible for these pharmacological effects are hyperforin and adhyperforin. In addition, these compounds modulate serotonin receptor activity, influence ion channel function—potentially altering calcium and sodium flux into cells—and can affect the activity of cytochrome P450 enzymes.[35]

20. Naringin:

Common Name: Naringin

Botanical Name: genus Citrus.

Family: Polyphenols

Chemical constituents: flavanone naringenin, disaccharide neohesperidose

Mechanism of action: Naringin, a flavonoid predominantly found in citrus fruits such as grapefruit and oranges, as well as in cooked tomato paste, cherries, beans, and oregano, exhibits several therapeutic effects relevant to psoriasis. Its pharmacological actions include anti-inflammatory activity and inhibition of chemokine production. In a clinical investigation with 20 subjects, Deenonpoe found that naringin effectively decreased the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-6, which are central to psoriasis-related immune dysregulation.[36]

CONCLUSION

Psoriasis remains an incurable yet manageable disease that requires long-term, patient-centric therapy. Although modern synthetic and biologic treatments effectively control symptoms, their limitations such as high cost, adverse effects, and recurrence highlight the need for safer alternatives. Herbal medicines, with their multidirectional mechanisms, natural bioactive compounds, and favorable safety profiles, have emerged as valuable options in psoriasis management. The integration of nanotechnology with herbal formulations further enhances therapeutic outcomes by improving drug solubility, skin penetration, and sustained release. However, rigorous preclinical and clinical evaluations, standardization of herbal extracts, and regulatory validation are essential to translate these natural remedies into reliable, evidence- based therapies. Future research should focus on understanding molecular mechanisms, developing novel delivery systems, and ensuring quality control to establish herbal medicine as a scientifically grounded, effective treatment strategy for psoriasis.

REFERENCES

1. Herman, A., & Herman, A. P. (2016). Topically used herbal products for the treatment of psoriasis: Mechanism of action, drug delivery, clinical studies. Planta Medica, 82(17), 1447– 1455.
2. Khorsheed, S. M., & Abu Raghif, A. R. (2024). Anti-proliferative, anti-oxidant and anti- inflammatory effects of topical Rutin on imiquimod-induced psoriasis in mice. Pakistan Journal of Life and Social Sciences, 22(1), 1962–1976.
3. Rahman, M., Alam, K., Ahmad, M. Z., Gupta, G., Afzal, M., Akhter, S., Kazmi, I., Jyoti, Ahmad, F. J., & Anwar, F. (2012). Classical to current approach for treatment of psoriasis: A review. Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders – Drug Targets, 12(3), 287–302.
4. Parisi, R., Iskandar, I. Y. K., Kontopantelis, E., Augustin, M., Griffiths, C. E. M., & Ashcroft, D. M. (2020). National, regional, and worldwide epidemiology of psoriasis: Systematic analysis and modelling study. BMJ, 369, m1590.
5. Tsoi, L. C., Spain, S. L., Knight, J., Ellinghaus, E., Stuart, P. E., Capon, F., ... & Elder, J. T. (2012). Identification of 15 new psoriasis susceptibility loci highlights the role of innate immunity. Nature Genetics, 44(12), 1341–1348
6. Griffiths, C. E. M., Armstrong, A. W., Gudjonsson, J. E., & Barker, J. N. (2021). Psoriasis. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 7(1), 47.
7. Lowes, M. A., Suarez-Fariñas, M., & Krueger, J. G. (2014). Immunology of psoriasis. Annual Review of Immunology, 32, 227–255.
8. Boehncke, W.-H., & Schön, M.-P. (2015). Psoriasis. The Lancet, 386(9997), 983–994.
9. Le, S., Wu, X., Dou, Y., Song, T., Fu, H., Luo, H., Zhang, F.,&Cao, Y. (2024). Promising strategies in natural products treatments of psoriasis—Update. Frontiers in Medicine, 11, 1386783.
10. Kaneria, S., Ramanuj, P.,&Patani, P. (2024). Complete review on treatment of psoriasis with exploration of herbal drug’s potential. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 31(1), 2165–2170.
11. Rakam, G. K., Kadagoni, P., Reddy, N., Sandhya, B., Shrenitha,&Aradhana. (2024). A review on collection of herbs used for the treatment of psoriasis. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research and Applications, 9(6), 158–166.
12. Sarkar, D., Das, S., Kalita, P., Pathak, B. J., Judder, M. I., Datta, K.,&Alam, F. (2023). Traditional Indian medicinal plants for the treatment of psoriasis: A review of active constituents and their pharmacological effects. Journal of Natural Remedies, 23(3), 786–790.
13. Sharma, K., & Kumar, S. (2024). Current strategies for the management of psoriasis with potential pharmacological pathways using herbals and immuno-biologicals. Current Molecular Pharmacology, 17(1), e150923221163.
14. Salim, N., Ahmad, N., Musa, S. H., Hashim, R., Tadros, T. F., & Basri, M. (2016). Nanoemulsion as a topical delivery system of antipsoriatic drugs. RSC Advances, 6(53), 6234– 6260.
15. Dabholkar, N., Rapalli, V. K.,&Singhvi, G. (2020). Potential herbal constituents for psoriasis treatment as protective and effective therapy. Phytotherapy Research, 34(12), 1–16.
16. Maheshwari, N., Maheshwari, N., Mishra, D. K., & Goyal, A. (2023). Phytotherapeutic potential of natural herbal medicines for management of psoriasis: Current status. Pharmacognosy Research, 15(1), 42–55.
17. Kaneria, S., Ramanuj, P.,&Patani, P. (2024). Complete review on treatment of psoriasis with exploration of herbal drug’s potential. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 31(1), 2165–2170.
18. Elkhawaga, O. Y., Ellety, M. M., Mofty, S. O., Ghanem, M. S.,&Mohamed, A. O. (2023). Review of natural compounds for potential psoriasis treatment. Inflammopharmacology, 31(4), 1183–1198.
19. Rakam, G. K., Kadagoni, P., Reddy, N., Sandhya, B., Shrenitha, A.,&Aradhana. (2024). A review on collection of herbs used for the treatment of psoriasis. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research and Applications, 9(6), 158–166.
20. Yamuna, K., Dwarampudi, L. P., Shanmugam, R., Mirunalini, G., Dutta, S., Nagaprasad, N.,&Krishnaraj, R. (2025). A review on phytoconstituents for the management of psoriasis. Natural Product Communications, 20(5), 1–13.
21. O. Y., Ellety, M. M., Mofty, S. O., Ghanem, M. S.,&Mohamed, A. O. (2023). Review of natural compounds for potential psoriasis treatment. Inflammopharmacology, 31(4), 1183–1198.
22. Sen CK, Traber KE, Packer L (1996) Inhibition of NF-κB activation in human T-cell lines by anetholdithiolthione, vol 153, no 0026, pp 148–153
23. Ramanuj, P.,&Patani, P. (2024). Complete review on treatment of psoriasis with exploration of herbal drug’s potential. Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology, 31(1), 2165–2170.
24. Tanwar, A. (2023). Natural compounds in psoriasis management: A review. International Journal of Pharmacognosy, 10(9), 489–501
25. Naganuma, M. (2019). Treatment with indigo naturalis for inflammatory bowel disease and other immune diseases. Immunological Medicine, 42(1), 16–21.
26. Silva, D., Ferreira, M. S., Sousa-Lobo, J. M., Cruz, M. T.,&Almeida, I. F. (2021). Anti- inflammatory activity of Calendula officinalis L. flower extract. Cosmetics, 8(2), 31.
27. Rapalli, V. K.,&Singhvi, G. (2020). Potential herbal constituents for psoriasis treatment as protective and effective therapy. Phytotherapy Research, 34(12), 1–16.
28. Tamboli, F. A., Gawali, S. M., Kokate, P. C., Shaikh, A. R., Shinde, A. J., Namdeo, A.,&Alaskar, K. (2022). Important medicinal plants for management of psoriasis. Indian Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, 9(2), 122–12
29. Soundararajan, V., Ravi Kumar, G., Murugesan, K., Chandrashekar, B. S., & Shetteppanavar, V. S. (2017). Recent developments in pharmaceutical and therapeutic applications of sandalwood oil. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, 6(8), 659–680.
30. Tanwar, A. (2023). Natural compounds in psoriasis management: A review. International Journal of Pharmacognosy, 10(9), 489–501
31. Damle, M. (2014). Glycyrrhiza glabra (Liquorice) – A potent medicinal herb. International Journal of Herbal Medicine, 2(2), 132–136.
32. Chen, N. (2022). Dietary plant-based foods and their effects on skin health and inflammation (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Davis). UC Davis Library.
33. Basharat, S., Gilani, S. A., Iftikhar, F., Murtaza, M. A., Basharat, A., Sattar, A., Qamar, M. M., & Ali, M. (2021). Capsaicin: Plants of the genus Capsicum and positive effect of oriental spice on skin health. Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 34(1), 1–11.
34. Ballester, P., Cerdá, B., Arcusa, R., Marhuenda, J., Yamedjeu, K., & Zafrilla, P. (2022). Effect of ginger on inflammatory diseases. Molecules, 27(21), 7223.
35. Wölfle, U., Seelinger, G., & Schempp, C. M. (2014). Topical application of St. John’s wort (Hypericum perforatum). Planta Medica, 80(2), 109–120.
36. Le, S., Wu, X., Dou, Y., Song, T., Fu, H., Luo, H., Zhang, F.,&Cao, Y. (2024). Promising strategies in natural products treatments of psoriasis—update. Frontiers in Medicine, 11, 1386783.