A Review on Wound Healing Potential of Berberis aristata, Symplocos racemosa, and Rubia cordifolia

Figure:1 Structure of Skin

Figure:2 Wound Healing Phases

2. Detailed Plant Studies

2.1 Berberis aristata (Daruharidra)

2.1.1 Taxonomical Classification of B.aristata[7]

2.1.2 Vernacular names of B.aristata[8][9]

2.1.3 Botanical description:

Figure:2 Berberis aristata (Daruharidra)

Leaves: The leaves occur in tufts 5 to 8, phyllotaxy is verticillate, the leaf is simple, spiny, lanceolate, toothed, leathery, sessile, acuminate with reticulate pinnate venation, length of the leaf 4.9 cm. and breadth 1.8 cm. dark green on the dorsal surface and pale green on the ventral surface.

Flower: stalked, yellow, complete, hermaphrodite, cyclic, actinomorphic, perigynous, the average diameter of a fully opened flower is 12.5 mm; inflorescence, a simple corymbose raceme, 11 or 16 flowers in a cluster.

Calyx:  Calyx is yellow in colour, polysepalous, with 6 sepals (3 small, 3 large), yellow, actinomorphic caducous, 4 to 5 mm long. The corolla consists of six distinct yellow petals which are symmetrical and each has a length of approximately 45 mm. Androecium are polyandrous with 6 stamens which are adnate, 5 to 6 mm long and gynoecium 1, 4 to 5 mm long, short style and broad stigma.

Fruits: Fruits are globose to ovoid, usually covered with bloom as in plums. The length of the fruits is 7 mm, diameter is 4 mm, weight is 227 mg, 237 microlitres of volume. The colour of the fruit is aconite violet. Seeds: The number of seeds is 2 to 5, with different colours including yellow to pink, with each seed weighing 25 mg, and having a volume of 29 microlitres.^[11]

2.1.4 Geographical Description:

Indian barberry Berberis aristata, the native of Nepal, is prevalent in South and Southeast Asia, including India, Sri Lanka, and Bhutan.^[12] The species thrives in the Sub-Himalayan region in India with an altitude between 1000 and 3000 meters. The Nilgiri Hills of southern India (10002400 meters) and other states, such as Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Sikkim, are also reported to have it. The plant will be able to flourish in favourable habitats up to an altitude of 3500 meters.^[13]

2.1.5 Phytochemical constituents of Daruharidra:^[14]

Berberis aristata has an abundance of bioactive compounds including alkaloids, flavonoids, and phenolic acids among other secondary compounds. It contains some of the important phytochemical constituents as listed below.

Berberine: Berberine is the main and most famous alkaloid used in Berberis aristata. It takes care of the yellow colour of the roots of the plant. Berberine is a widely researched drug due to its multiple pharmacological effects, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antidiabetic effects.

Palmatine: Palmatine is another valuable alkaloid, which happens in Berberis aristata. It has a very similar chemical structure to that of berberine, and shows a number of similar pharmacological activities.

Isoquinoline: Isoquinoline alkaloids include jatrorrhizine and magnoflorine, along with a number of other isoquinole-based alkaloids, found in Berberis aristata in addition to berberine and palmatine.

Flavonoids: Berberis aristata also has different flavonoid molecules such as quercetin, kaempferol, and their glycosides. Flavonoids possess antioxidant as well as anti-inflammatory effects and contribute to therapeutic potential of the plant.

Phenolic Acids: Gallic acid, ferulic acid, and caffeic acid are phenolic acids that have been discovered in Berberis aristata. These are antioxidant and anti-inflammatory compounds that help in increasing the antioxidant potential of the plant as a whole.

Tannins: Berberis aristata has got tannins, which are stringent polyphenol compounds. Tannins are known to possess the power to be antioxidants as well as antimicrobials.

2.1.6 Pharmacological properties of Daruharidra (Berberis aristata):

Anti-inflammatory Activity: The plant possesses highly effective anti-inflammatory activities especially those of berberine. Because of these properties it finds application in treatment of inflammatory diseases such as arthritis and inflammatory bowel disease and arthritis.^[15]

Antimicrobial Action: Berberis aristata contains an alkaloid known as Berberine which has been known to act as a broad-spectrum antibacterial agent. It has proven that it is effective in a large variety of bacteria, fungi, viruses and parasites.

Hepatoprotective Activity: Traditional uses of Berberis aristata involve enhancing liver function. Its extracts have hepatoprotective effects, which help the liver to be protected against toxin-induced, oxidative stress-induced, and inflammatory damage. It can be beneficial in the therapy of liver disorders and as an adjuvant in liver detoxification as a result of it.^[16]

Antidiabetic Action: Berberis aristata, has exhibit antidiabetic properties. It aids in the management of blood sugar levels through enhancement of insulin sensitivity, uptake of glucose into cells and reduces production of glucose in the liver. It could have a positive effect on the treatment of type 2 diabetes and complications thereof.^[17]

Gastrointestinal Effects: Berberis aristata exhibits anti-secretory and anti-diarrheal action, which is why it is applicable in such processes as diarrhoea and gastroenteritis. It has also been discovered to possess positive potentials in the treatment of gastric ulcers.

Effects on wound Healing: Wound healing effects of Berberis aristata are also implemented. Male adult goat under which wound healing activity was tested was the focus of a study based on clinical observation, healing and change rate of histo morphological features. As a wound dressing, aqueous and alcoholic extract were applied on the open wounds and the findings are valuable in wound healing.^[18]

2.2 Symplocos racemosa (Lodhra):

2.2.1 Taxonomical classification of S.racemosa:^[19]

2.2.2 Vernacular Names of S.racemosa:^[20]

2.2.3 Botanical Description:

Figure:3 Symplocos racemosa (Manjistha)

Penchant: It is an evergreen tree, now and then in form of a bramble, whose branchlets are smooth or vaguely covered with hairy scales.

Bark:  The outer bark has a dull, buff tone with fine longitudinal cracks and occasional fissures, while the inner bark appears whitish-buff. The leaves and the bark both are used in dyeing.

Leaves: The leaves are dark green with the upper surface, and are of various shapes orbicular, elliptic-oval or lanceolate with sizes of about 5-12.5 cm. They are leathery in texture, smooth above, and sparsely hairy along the midrib underneath. The veins are not very clear and the petiole is developed.

Flowers: The flowers are sessile or almost so, white, which turn yellow with age, and fragrant. They are carried in the short axillary compound racemes. The corolla is far much longer than the calyx. The number of stamen is high, usually approximately 100. The ovary is three-celled.

Fruit and Stem: The stem is quite long, rather rounded, hollow, 0.5 inches long. They are leathery in texture, smooth above, and sparsely hairy along the midrib underneath.

Uses: A yellow colour is extracted primarily by the use of the bark, but leaves also provide colour. It is a dye which is traditionally applied to silk, commonly along with turmeric and Plecospermum spinosum (also called Gumbengfong locally). One of the ingredients of Abir, the coloured powder used during the Holi festival, is also made of the plant. It is also used in calico printing and leather dyeing.^[21]

2.2.4 Geographical Distribution:

The Himalayan districts of north and east India are the common areas of Symplocos racemosa. The Symplocaceae family has 300-500 species, which have a place with the class Symplocos. India harbors approximately 68 species.^[22] The very tall 6 to 8.5 metres Symplocos racemosa Roxb. is so abundant in the plains and lower hills of India,^[23] that it is common everywhere. It rises to 1400m in Himalayas, and also in Bengal, Assam, and Chota Nagpur. Symplocos a genus of plant, flowering, approximately 250 species native to Asia, America and Australia.^[24]

2.2.5 Phytochemical constituents:

Symplocos racemosa was pure source of phytochemicals which include flavonoids, phenols, tannins, saponins and Glycosides.^[25] It contains several flavonoid glucosides like symplocoside, symposide, leucopelargonidine-3 glucoside, ellagic acid, rhamnetin, 3-digalactoside, triterpenoids like 19 α-hydroxy acetic acid 3, 28-O-bis- β-glucopyranosides, betulin, linoleic acid, β-sitosterol and α-amyrin and alkaloids like loturine, loturidine, colloturine and harmine are seen as chief bio actives from the plant. Most of the flavonoids and its respective compounds have been isolated from aerial parts of the plant while glycosides of different extracted from the polar fractions of the bark of the plant.^[26] It also contains Flavanol glucoside which contains active constituents like Symplocoside, Symposide, Leucopelargonid in 3-Glucoside, Ellagic Acid, Rhamnetin 3 Galactoside. Triterpenoids: 19 Α Hydroxyarjunoli c Acid-3, 28-O Bis-Β Glucopyranosid es, 19 Α Hydroxyasiatic Acid-3, Betulin, Oleanolic Acid, Β- Sitosterol & Α-Amyrin.^[27][28]

2.2.6 Pharmacological properties:

Lodhra has astringent, hemostatic, quieting, febrifuge, constipative, wound healing, disease anticipation specialist, anthelmintic, Unfriendly to angiogenic, antibacterial, suppurative, lipoxygenase moreover, urease inhibitory exercises.^[29]

Anti-bacterial Property: Antibacterial property helps the diabetic patient to fight against infections caused over skin, urinary tract etc. Its antibacterial property is helpful in prevention of complications. Ethanolic extract of S. racemosa Roxb shows good antibacterial activity as compared to petroleum ether, but it has poor antibacterial activity against gram negative microorganism like P. aeruginosa and E. Coli.^[30] Methanolic extracts of the leaves, roots, and stem bark of S. cochinchinensis, along with their fractions obtained through partitioning with petroleum ether, dichloromethane, and ethyl acetate, were evaluated for their antimicrobial activity. All crude extracts and fractions showed a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity that was enhanced on fractionation.^[31]

Anti-oxidant activity: Antioxidant property helps in person to avoid many ailments and keep body tissues healthy. It scavenges the harmful free radicles that are either accumulated in the body or produces during abnormalities in metabolism. Thus it helps in protection of vital cell against metabolic disorder and complications of diabetes. The methanol extract of Lodhra leaves showed very good scavenging activity on 2,2-diphenyl- picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), hydroxyl, nitric oxide radicals, as well as high reducing power. The extract also showed strong suppressive effect on lipid per-oxidation.^[32]

Neuro-supportive role: Lodhra extract are having nervine tonic and good healing properties that may be utilized in diabetic wound healing as well as nervine damage. It may play a preventive role over neuropathy complications as well as body tissue damage complications. Locoracemosides A, B and C from n butanol soluble extract from bark of S. racemosa showing in vitro inhibitory activity against α chymotrypsin.^[33]

Anticancer Activity:  The test with chloroform, butanol and ethyl acetate bark extracts has cytotoxic activity determined by using the XTT salt based on cytotoxicity assay against one leukaemia and one cervical cancer cell line. It was also reported butanol extract have highest cytotoxicity activity against hela cell line.^[34]

Hepatoprotective Activity: The evaluated study with ethanolic extract of bark on carbon tetrachloride can induce hepatic damage in rats. Ethanolic extracts demonstrated a dose-dependent ability to restore serum enzyme levels, bilirubin, albumin, total protein, and antioxidant activity. It is an effective method for inducing hepatic damage and has a potential clinical application for the treatment of liver diseases.^[35]

Wound Healing Effects: Symplocos racemosa or Lodhra have been tested with other combined drug forms for healing the wounds and it was found to be effective in animal models. It is also used in plasters and applied on wounds for promoting maturation of wounds.^[36] The most advantage is powdered formation of bark lodhra is used for heals wounds.^[37]

2.3 Rubia cordifolia (Manjistha):

2.3.1 Taxonomical classification of R.cordifolia:[38]

2.3.2 Vernacular names of R.cordifolia:[39]

2.3.3 Botanical Description:

Figure:4 Rubia cordifolia (Manjistha)

Rubia cordifolia (Manjishtha) is a perennial, herbaceous climbing herb.^[38] It is a perennial herb that can spread up to 1.5 or 2 meters by climbing or scrambling.

Stem: The stem is covered with stiff hairs and spines, has a four-angled shape, and branches widely in a spreading pattern. They can be smooth or shiny. In cross-section, the stem is circular and smooth with pyramidal hairs on the surface and a sclerenchymatous hypodermis at the corners. The cortex, which is chlorenchymatous, aids in photosynthesis. The periderm has 4 to 11 layers of compact; rectangular cells, followed by 8 to 12 layers of flattened parenchyma. The central xylem contains small vessels and parenchyma, while secondary xylem includes various tissues and larger vessels at the periphery.^[40]

Leaves: Rough, evergreen, arranged in whorl of four per node, oval to cordate shape, 4 to 8 cm long, 2 to 3 cm width; the lower leaves are larger than the upper ones, with each leaf displaying five to seven prominent veins. Lower leaves are larger, with a slightly cordate base and minute white prickles. The leaf structure includes a cuticle, pyramidal hairs, compact palisade cells, multilayered spongy cells, and collenchymatous layers in the midrib. Vascular bundles are collateral, closed, and consistent in number.^[41]

Flowers: The plant bears small flowers that range in colour from greenish-white to red, arranged in smooth terminal clusters. They are five-petaled and release a pleasant fragrance. It blooms and bears fruits between August and October.^[42]

Fruits: The plant produces round berries measuring 4 to 6 mm in diameter, which are smooth, shiny, and fleshy. They are green when unripe and turn red to black upon ripening.

Root: About 1 meter long, 12 mm thick, and brownish-red in colour, the root is smooth, cylindrical, and long. In cross-section, the root displays 5–7 outer layers of cork tissue, sometimes containing tannins. The phellogen is indistinct, while the secondary cortical cells are polygonal, thin-walled, and exhibit a reddish coloration. Mostly made up of tracheids and vessels, the secondary xylem dish. There are many and evenly distributed vessels. Secondary phloem forms a wide zone of reddish colour consists of thin-walled, sieve elements and phloem parenchyma but phloem fibres are absent. The Cambium is unique and does not have medullary rays. The entire root is red in colour indicates that anthraquinones are present.^[43]

2.3.4 Geographical Distribution:

This species is commonly found at elevations of around 8,000 feet in the hilly regions of India, particularly throughout the Himalayan range extending from the northwestern frontier to the eastern Himalayas. Its distribution also reaches Sri Lanka, the Malay region, tropical Africa, China, Japan, and Java. It can be found in Nepal, Sri Lanka, Iran, Afghanistan, and India (Dehradun, Kashmir, Nagpur, and Malvan). The plant propagates naturally through seeds and can also be cultivated using stem cuttings. There are four varieties of Manjistha: chola, yojani, konchi, and sinhala.^[44] It is distributed in the Himalayas from Kashmir eastwards and Nilgiris and other hilly districts of India.^[45]

2.3.5 Phytochemical constituents of Rubia cordifolia:

Different classes of bioactive compounds such as anthraquinones and their glycosides, naphthoquinones, terpenes, hexapeptides, carboxylic acids, iridoids, and saccharides are reported from various parts of Manjistha.^[46]

Anthraquinones such as:

Rubiadin: A significant anthraquinone glycoside with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties in Manjistha.                                                                                                              

Lucidin: The anthraquinone aglycone Lucidin has antibacterial and anti-cancer properties.

Purpurin: An anthraquinone glycoside that has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

Glycosides such as:

Rubianin: A glycoside of rubiadin with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties.

Lucidin-3-O-β-D-glucoside: An antibacterial and anti-cancer glycoside of lucidin.

Rubiaflavin: An anti-inflammatory and antioxidant glycoside.

Additional Bioactive Substances

Flavonoids: Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties include quercetin, kaempferol, and their glycosides.

Phenolic acids: Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant qualities, include gallic acid, ellagic acid, and ferulic acid.

Terpenoids: Anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties include oleanolic acid, ursolic acid, and β-sitosterol.

These bioactive compounds contribute to the medicinal and cosmetic properties of Manjistha, including its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and wound-healing activities.^[47]

2.3.6 Pharmacological Properties of Rubia cordifolia:

Anti-inflammatory activity: Manjistha exhibits strong anti-inflammatory properties, making it useful in managing conditions like arthritis and skin-related inflammations. This action is primarily due to its inhibition of pro-inflammatory enzymes and cytokines.^[48]

Antidiabetic activity: Alcoholic extract of Rubia cordifolia has antidiabetic property and this activity has been demonstrated by study conducted on alloxan treated rat model. It was found that alcoholic extract significantly lowered down the blood glucose level.^[49]

Anti-oxidant property:  The antioxidant activity of Manjistha extract, particularly its ability to protect against lipid peroxidation and maintain reduced glutathione (GSH) levels in rat liver homogenates, was evaluated in comparison with vitamin E and para-benzoquinone (PBQ).In the roots of R. cordifolia, hydroxyanthraquinones were identified as the major phenolic compounds responsible for antioxidant activity, with both the alcoholic extract and its constituent rubiadin showing notable antioxidant effects.^[50]

Anti-microbial activity: Research has explored the antibacterial potential of R. cordifolia root extract against a range of pathogenic microorganisms. Both daucosterol and sitosterol have antimicrobial properties. It has been observed that rubiacordone shows significant antibacterial action against gram-positive bacteria.^[51]

Anti- acne property: A gel formulation containing anthraquinone-rich R. cordifolia demonstrated anti-acne effectiveness against Propionibacterium acne, Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Malassezia furfur when compared to clindamycin gel.^[52]

Wound Healing property: The root extract of R. cordifolia has been reported to possess effective wound-healing properties in experimental models. Ethanolic extract and the hydrogel formulation of roots were found to be effective in the functional recovery and healing of wounds and also lead to histo-pathological alterations.^[53] Manjistha has ability to enhance collagen formation aids in the healing of the skin tissues, making it effective in reducing the appearance of stretch marks. Its Ropana -sothahar properties further support wound healing and reduce swelling or oedema caused by itching.^[54] Topical applications of Manjishtha promote faster healing of wounds and ulcers, due to its antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory actions.^[55]

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:

The process of wound healing is complicated, and the plants, discussed in this paper: Berberis aristata, Rubia cordifolia, and Symplocos racemosa seem to complement each other with regard to supporting various phases of wound healing. Berberis aristata has the greatest value in the initial stages of treatment. The major compound it contains, berberine, is used in combating infections and inflammation to provide a cleaner wound environment in which the patient can start repairing itself. Rubia cordifolia is introduced in the proliferative stage. Such substances as alizarin and purpurin can be considered as antioxidants and stimulate the development of new blood vessels. This does not only enhance oxygen supply but also enhances fibroblast growth and collagen deposition which are imperative to tissue regeneration. Symplocos racemosa plays an important role during the last stage of the remodeling. It enhances the activity of fibroblasts and promotes tightening and strengthening of the wound that is essential in maintaining tissue integrity in the long term with bioactive molecules like symplocoside and betulinic acid. These plants appear to span the entire range of wound healing processes when placed together: berberis aristata cleans and protects the wound, Rubia cordifolia develops new tissue, and Symplocos racemosa makes sure that it is properly developed. This is an indication that a poly herbal treatment might have a better benefit than any single plant because in many cases such as in diabetic wound the healing is slow. It is worth noting though that a majority of the studies that have been conducted have been conducted in animals or in vitro with very little data available about humans themselves. Before these traditional plants can become dependable contemporary treatments, standardization of extracts, the safe, and effective doses as well as well-designed clinical trials are required. Their efficacy in wound care can be further improved by studying new delivery vehicles, including gels, hydrogels, or nanocarriers.

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