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Abstract

Particulate matter (PM) is one of the most significant environmental risk factors contributing to the onset and progression of respiratory diseases[4]. Despite notable advancements in medical science, the effective management and control of pulmonary disorders remain a major global challenge. Respiratory diseases such as asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, cystic fibrosis, and pneumonia continue to cause substantial morbidity and mortality worldwide[6].In the current era of escalating air pollution, these diseases are increasingly diagnosed among both children and adults, affecting the upper and lower respiratory tracts. Recent experimental studies have demonstrated that various herbal medicines possess pharmacological properties capable of alleviating symptoms and reducing respiratory damage induced by particulate matter in animal models[36]. Herbal therapies have emerged as promising alternatives due to their natural origin, minimal side effects, and potential efficacy in managing respiratory conditions[27]. This review aims to compile and analyze all available ethnomedicinal and pharmacological data regarding plant-based treatments for respiratory diseases. Additionally, it evaluates the safety, efficacy, and therapeutic potential of herbal medicines in treating disorders such as COPD, asthma, pneumonia, and lung cancer[9]. In light of the recent COVID-19 pandemic, which has intensified respiratory health challenges globally, this study emphasizes the need for further scientific exploration of herbal medicine as a complementary and sustainable approach to respiratory disease management

Keywords

Particulate matter, respiratory diseases, herbal medicine, COPD, asthma, ethnopharmacology

Introduction

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Traditional medicine represents a diverse system of knowledge, skills, and practices grounded in Ancestral theories, cultural beliefs, and empirical experience[23]. Its primary objective is to promote Health and well-being through the prevention and treatment of physical and mental disorders. Closely related to this is the concept of folk medicine, which includes home remedies, rituals, and therapeutic procedures developed and applied by self-taught practitioners[32]. These methods aim to alleviate symptoms and prevent illness using locally available natural resources.Chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) pose a major global health concern, as exposure to Environmental pollutants and infectious agents can easily lead to pulmonary complications. Common CRDs include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary sarcoidosis, and pneumoconiosis such as silicosis and asbestosis[15]. Despite their severe impact on morbidity and Mortality, CRDs often receive less public attention and research funding than other chronic illnesses such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, stroke, diabetes, and Alzheimer’s disease[5]. Effective management of respiratory diseases requires a comprehensive understanding of their Prevalence, health consequences, and mortality trends across different regions. Respiratory Disorders—ranging from mild infections like the common cold to severe, life-threatening Conditions—remain among the leading causes of medical consultations worldwide[17]. These diseases Not only diminish quality of life but also impose a significant financial burden on individuals and Healthcare systems. 

 

Table No.1 Pharmacological Arsenal: A Review of Drugs, Chemistry, and Therapeutic Uses

 

Drug Name

Chemical

Constitution

Biological Source

Applications

1)Tulsi

 

 

 

Eugenol,           β-

caryophyllene, linalool, cineole, Rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, Orientin, vicenin, luteolin, Tannins, saponins, alkaloids.

Tulsi is fresh dried leaves of Ocimum Sanctum linn.

Antiviral,

Antiinfalmentry, Boost immunity, cold sore throat.

2) Vasaka

 

 

 

Alkaloids, Vasicinine, Vasicinone, Phenol, flavonoid, Tannins, saponin, Essential Oils, Carotene and Vitamin

C, Trace elementsPotassium (K), Sodium

(Na), Calcium (Ca)

The fresh and dried leaves of plant Adhatoda Vasica also know as a malabar.

Cold     Cough,

Bronchitis,

Tuberculosis, Skin disease, Asthma,

Allergy reaction.

3) Turmeric

 

 

 

Curcuminoids,

Curcumin, demethoxy

Curcuminoids,

Bisdemethoxy

Curcumin,             Phenolic Compound,

Zingiberence, Protein, Lipid.

It Is dried Rhizomes of the plant Curcumin longa.

Flavouring agent, Colouring agent,

Antiinfalmentry,

Antioxidants, Brain health, heart, Skin health.

4) Ashwagandha

 

 

 

Withaferin        A,

Withanolide A,B,, Withanone Alkaloids, somnifera, Anahygrin, Tropine, Cusohygrine, Saponin, Flavonoid.

It is Dried roots and steam bases of the plant withania Somnifera.

Stress, Anxiety, Brain Function, Physical performance, sleep Quality, heart Health, Thyroid function.

 

Table no. 2 Herbal Healing: Phytochemicals and Therapeutic Potential

 

Parameters

Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum)

Vasaka (Adhatoda vasica)

Turmeric

(Curcuma longa)

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera)

Colour

Green (leaves), slightly brown when dried

Dark green (leaves), brownish when

dried

Bright yelloworange (rhizome), brown when dried

Light brown (roots), off-white when dried

Odour

Aromatic, characteristic

Strong, pungent

Characteristic aromatic, mild

Mild, slightly earthy

Taste

Pungent, slightly bitter

Bitter

Slightly bitter, pungent

Bitter

Shape

Oval to lanceolate leaves

Elliptic-oblong leaves

Cylindrical, tapering rhizomes

Cylindrical, tapering roots

Fracture

Short, fibrous

Fibrous, tough

Hard, fibrous

Hard, woody

Texture

Soft, velvety, slightly brittle when dried

Rough, slightly rigid

Rough, hard, fibrous

Fibrous, dense

 

Table No. 3 Nature's Pharmacy: Global Distribution of Medicinal Plants

 

Drug  Name 

  Species 

Geographical Distribution

 

1)Tulsi

 

Rama Tulsi (Green

leaf) 

Rama Tulsi is native to the Indian subcontinent and is now widely cultivated and naturalized across tropical and subtropical regions, including parts of Southeast Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific islands[54].

Tulsi krishna (purpule leaf)

Krishna Tulsi is found in Inian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. 

Kapoor Tulsi (Heavy Flowered) 

Kapoor tulsi is native to the Indian subcontinent and is now cultivated across many parts of India, including West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Kerala[23]. It is also found in the wild in some parts of India, like Odisha. Globally, it's grown and found in Southeast Asian tropics and has naturalized in parts of the Americas.

 

Vana    Tulsi             (Wild

Tulsi) 

Vana tulsi is native to India, Sri Lanka, Java, and parts of Africa. It is also found growing wild across the Himalayas and the Indian plains and has naturalized in other tropical regions like Brazil. 

 

Amrita Tulsi

 

Amrit Tulsi is  cultivated throughout Southeast Asia[37].

 

2) Vasaka 

 

Shweta Vasaka

Shweta vasaka is a shrub native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.

 

 

Krishna Vasaka

 

Krishna Vasaka is a plant native to India subcontinent ,Srilanka parts of southeast Asia, tropical subtropical Asia  and Australia[34].

 

3) Turmeric

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Curcuma longa

Curcuma longa is native to South and Southeast Asia, with its natural range including India, and is now cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions worldwide. Major producing countries include India (the largest producer), China, Myanmar, Nigeria, and Bangladesh. 

Curcuma aromatica

Curcuma aromatica is primarily found in the Indian subcontinent, extending into Southeast Asia, southern China, and Sri Lanka[38]. It grows wild in moist deciduous forests in countries like India and also has a cultivated presence in tropical regions across Asia, Africa, the Americas, and Pacific Ocean island.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Curcuma Caesia

Curcuma caesia  is primarily found in moist deciduous forests across northeast and central India, with specific states including West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, and Uttar Pradesh[52].It is also found in parts of Southeast Asia,including Java and Myanmar.

 

Curcuma Zedoaria

            Curcuma         zedoaria          is indigenous   to             South, Southeast        Asia,

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and India, with a wild distribution in the Eastern Himalayas and parts of Kerala. It is now found intropical and subtropical regions, including China, Japan, Nepal, Thailand, Indonesia, and Brazil, and has been naturalized in some areas like the U.S. state of Florida.  

 

Curcuma Amada

Curcuma amada is native to the Indo-Malayan region and is widely distributed in the tropics of Asia. It found in includes India (where it's cultivated in states like Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, and West Bengal, and found in the wild in parts of the Northeast), Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Thailand, Australia, and Africa.

 

Curcuma Aeruginosa

Curcuma aeruginosa is native to Bangladesh to West Malesia, including countries like Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia. It has also been introduced to India[52].

 

Curcuma Augustifolia

Curcuma angustifolia found in the Indian subcontinent, especially in eastern, central, and southern India,   northeastern hills and western coastal plains. Its distribution extends to other parts of Asia, including Nepal, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Laos,  Pakistan, and some areas of North Australia.

 

Curcuma Phaeocaulis

Curcuma phaeocaulis is native to Java, Vietnam, and southern China (Yunnan province). It is also cultivated in other southern Chinese provinces, including Fujian, Guangdong, Guangxi, and Sichuan.

 

Curcuma Comosa

Curcuma comosa is native to Southeast Asia. Its native range spans from northeastern India to Thailand[51].

Curcuma

Xanthorrhiza

It is native to Indonesia, Java, and is also native to India. It is cultivated in Southeast Asia, including Malaysia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Vietnam.

 

4)Ashwagandha

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Jawahar

Ashwagandha

20(JA20)

Jawahar Ashwagandha 

20 (JA20) is primarily within the dry, subtropical regions of India, with a specific focus on Madhya Pradesh. 

 

Jawahar

Ashwagandha

(JA134)

Jawahar Ashwagandha (JA134) is cultivated in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Haryana ,Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,Gujrat and Maharashtra. 

 

RajVijay

Ashwagandha (RVA-

100) 

 

Its geographical distribution is primarily focused on the southern regions of Rajasthan, Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture and Technology (MPUAT) in Udaipur, MPUAT's instructional farm in Udaipur. 

 

Poshita (CIMAP)

The CIMAP Research Centre in Hyderabad has actively promoted Ashwagandha cultivation, especially Poshita, among farmers in the drought-prone Anantapur district.Ashwagandha is also widely grown in states like Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. 

CIMAP-Chetak

The exact national distribution of CIMAP-Chetak is not fully documented, its parent plant (Withania somnifera) and the broader category of Nagori ashwagandha are most heavily cultivated in the drier, central, and northwestern parts of India[36].

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rakshita

Rakshita have been conducted at CIMAP’s experimental fields in Hyderabad, Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CSIR-CIMAP) in Lucknow.

 

Vallabh Ashwagandha

Vallabh varieties were developed in main Indian states with large ashwagandha cultivation in Madhya Pradesh (Neemuch/Mandsaur area), Rajasthan, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,

Maharashtra and parts of South India in irrigated/drier tracts.

 Anand Withania

Somnifera -1 (AWS1)

AWS-1 is found in Madhya Pradesh (Neemuch/Mandsaur),

Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and parts of Maharashtra

 

 

 

 

 

 

Arka

The General lacotion is in Africa, Asia, and Europe, Pakistan and Sri Lanka, Yemen, Iran, and Afghanistan, China and has become naturalized in parts of Australia. 

 

Pushti

It is released by  CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP) for commercial cultivation. Madhya Pradesh and parts of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat. 

 

NMITLI-118

It is developed in India by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).NMITLI-118 is grown in India in areas that provide a semi-tropical climate with dry, sunny weather like Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh. 

 

NMITLI-101

NMITLI-101 was developed for cultivation in the Deccan Plateau and western dry regions of India, Central Plateau, Gujarat plains Deccan Plateau region, Experimental fields in Hyderabad. 

 

Table No. 4 Phytochemical Insights: Targets and Mechanisms

Drug Name

Family

Botanical Name

Primary           Site(s) of

Action/Target Pathways

Type of Inhibition / Modulation

Tulsi

Lamiaceae

Ocimum tenuiflorum L.

-COX-2 enzyme

- Lipoxygenase (LOX)  - NF-κB and AP-1 transcription factors

- Competitive inhibition of COX2 and LOX → ↓ prostaglandins, leukotrienes  - Blocks NF-κB activation

Vasaka

Acanthaceae

Justicia adhatoda L.
  • Phosphodiesterase

(PDE) enzyme  - Histamine H1 receptor

  • NF-κB / TNF-α pathway
  • Inhibits PDE → bronchodilation  - Antagonizes histamine H1 receptor → antiallergic
  • Suppresses NFκB–mediated inflammation

Turmeric

Zingiberaceae

Curcuma longa L.
  • COX-2, LOX
  • NF-κB, STAT3 - MAPK, PI3K/Akt pathways
  • iNOS (inducible nitric

- Inhibits NF-κB and COX-2 expression - Downregulates pro-inflammatory

 

 

 

 

oxide synthase).

cytokines (TNF-α,

IL-6)

- Inhibits kinase phosphorylation

 

Ashwagandha

Solanaceae

Withania (L.) Dunal

somnifera
  • NF-κB pathway

(nuclear factor kappa B)

  • JAK/STAT signaling  - Hsp90 chaperone protein

- Inhibits NF-κB activation → ↓ inflammation - Inhibits Hsp90 client protein maturation - Modulates cortisol receptor binding

 

Table No.5 Concentration of  Eugenol in Tulsi

Species

Concentration

Interpretation

Rama Tulsi

20% - 60%

Moderate to high eugenol content. Shows substantial variability, likely due to seasonal and regional differences in cultivation. Suitable for general therapeutic and aromatic applications.

Tulsi krishna

40% - 70%

High eugenol content. Consistently richer than Rama Tulsi, making it a preferred cultivar for products requiring strong eugenol-mediated bioactivity (e.g., antimicrobial, antioxidant).

Kapoor Tulsi

25%

Relatively low eugenol content. Likely chemotype dominated by camphor rather than eugenol. May provide complementary bioactivity but is not ideal as  a primary eugenol source.

Vana Tulsi

50% - 75%

Highest eugenol content among the listed cultivars. Represents the most potent eugenol-rich chemotype. Excellent candidate for targeted extraction and therapeutic formulations emphasizing eugenol.

Amrita Tulsi

Very low as non detectable

Essentially negligible eugenol. Classified as a loweugenol chemotype. Highlights the importance of cultivar selection, as Amrita Tulsi may provide other bioactive compounds but not eugenol-dependent effects.

 

KEY OBSERVATION :Tulsi varieties show varying eugenol content: Krishna Tulsi (40-70%) and Vana Tulsi (5075%) are rich, Rama Tulsi (20-60%) is moderate, Kapoor Tulsi (~25%) is lower, and Amrita Tulsi has little to no eugenol. Choosing the right variety ensures quality and benefits.

 

Table No. 6 Concentration of Vasicinone in Vasaka stem

Species

Concentration

1)Shweta Vasaka

1.933±0.046%

2) Krishna Vasaka

1.933%w/w

 

 KEY OBSERVATION : Shweta Vasaka and Krishna Vasaka show identical levels of the active constituent (1.933% w/w), indicating they're comparable for therapeutic use. This consistency is great for standardized herbal products, ensuring reliable efficacy and quality

 

 

Table No. 7 Concentration of curcuminoids

Species

Concentration

Interpretation

Curcuma longa

1.16 % - 4.92 %

This is the commonly cultivated turmeric species, widely known for curcumin. The range indicates moderate variability, which could be due to differences in cultivation, geographical origin, or extraction methods.

Curcuma aromatica

3 mg/100 gm

Extremely low content compared to C. longa. C. aromatica is often used for cosmetic or skin applications rather than as a high-curcumin source.

Curcuma Caesia

50% - 60%

Exceptionally high concentration, likely referring to total curcuminoids or essential oils. This species is rare and used in traditional medicine for antiinflammatory and analgesic purposes. The high percentage suggests strong bioactive potential.

Curcuma Zedoaria

0 %– 6 %

Very variable content, often low. Primarily used for its aromatic properties and digestive benefits rather than curcumin content.

Curcuma Amada

0.12%- 1.35%

Low content compared to C. longa, consistent with its culinary use for flavor rather than medicinal curcumin content.

Curcuma Aeruginosa

5.6%

Moderate curcuminoid content, slightly higher than typical C. longa lower range. Used in Ayurveda for pain relief and skin disorders.

Curcuma Augustifolia

373.9±1.1mg/g

Very high content; likely refers to total extractable active constituents, not just curcumin. Widely used as a starch source and in Ayurvedic medicine.

Curcuma Phaeocaulis

3-8%

Low to moderate content. Commonly used in

traditional medicine for gastrointestinal and antiinflammatory benefits.

Curcuma Comosa

300.7±1.4mg/g

High content, comparable to C. angustifolia. Traditionally used for women’s health in Southeast Asia (e.g., hormone-related conditions).

Curcuma Xanthorrhiza

5%

Moderate content. Known for both curcuminoids and essential oils. Often used as a medicinal herb in Southeast Asia.

 

KEY OBSERVATION : The Curcuma species show wide variation in curcumin and bioactive compound content. Curcuma longa, aeruginosa, xanthorrhiza, phaeocaulis, and amada contain moderate amounts of curcumin (0.12%– 8%), while C. caesia, angustifolia, and comosa are richer in bioactive compounds (30%–60% or 300–374 mg/g). C. aromatica and zedoaria have low curcumin but are valued for cosmetic and medicinal uses. This diversity highlights that different Curcuma species are suited for distinct applications—culinary, medicinal, or cosmetic—depending on their chemical composition.

 

Table No. 8 Concentration of Withaferin A in Ashwagandha

Species

Concentration

Interpretation

Jawahar Ashwagandha 20(JA20)

0.003mg/g

Extremely low; almost negligible medicinal potency.

Jawahar Ashwagandha (JA134)

1.407mg/g

Moderate; better than JA20 but still lower than high-potency varieties.

Raj Vijay Ashwagandha (RVA-100)

Upto 2%

High; 2% is equivalent to 20 mg/g, which is very potent.

Poshita (CIMAP)

0.875mg/g

Low-moderate; mild medicinal effects.

CIMAP-Chetak

0.40%-1.22%

Variable; can range from low to moderate potency

CIMAP-Pratap

0.720%

Moderate; average withanolide content.

Rakshita

4.5%

Very high; strong medicinal potency.

Vallabh Ashwagandha

6.469%

Extremely high; top among all varieties listed. Excellent for therapeutic use.

Anand Withania Somnifera -1(AWS-1)

Not Available

Cannot interpret due to lack of data.

Arka

0.092%

Very low; weak medicinal effects.

Pushti

0.543mg/g

Low; limited therapeutic potency.

NMITLI-118

4.6mg/g

High; potent medicinal properties.

NMITLI-101

4.6mg/g

High; similar to NMITLI-118.

 

KEY OBSERVATION :Ashwagandha varieties vary in withanolide content: Vallabh (6.469%) and Rakshita

(4.5%) are top-potency, followed by NMITLI-118 and NMITLI-101. Moderate varieties include CIMAP-Pratap and

Poshita, while Pushti, Arka, and JA20 have low levels. Vallabh and Rakshita are ideal for therapeutic use 

 

Table No. 9 Qualitative Analysis of drugs

Parameter

Tulsi

Vasaka

Turmeric

Ashwagandha

Ash value

10–12%

12–14%

7–9%

5–8%

Moisture content

6–8%

5–7%

8–10%

4–6%

Extractive value

Alcohol-soluble: ~25%, Watersoluble: ~30%

Alcohol-soluble: ~20%, Watersoluble: ~25%

Alcohol-soluble: ~10%, Watersoluble: ~20%

Alcohol-soluble: ~15%, Watersoluble: ~25%

Phytochemical Constitution

Alkaloids (+),

Flavonoids (+),

Tannins (+),

Saponins (+), Glycosides (+), Terpenoids (+)

Alkaloids (Vasicine

+), Tannins (+),

Saponins (+),

Phenols (+),

Glycosides (+)

Alkaloids (+),

Flavonoids (+),

Phenols (+), Curcuminoids (+), Terpenoids (+)

Alkaloids

(Withanine +),

Steroids (+),

Saponins (+),

Phenols (+),

Glycosides (+)
 

 

KEY OBSERVATION : Tulsi, Vasaka, Turmeric, and Ashwagandha are packed with medicinal compounds like alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids. Tulsi has abundant soluble constituents, Vasaka is mineral-rich, Turmeric's curcuminoids offer antioxidant benefits, and Ashwagandha's withanolides drive its adaptogenic effects .

RESULT

Tulsi: Vana Tulsi has highest eugenol (50-75%), Krishna Tulsi (40-70%) is next. Good for respiratory issues.Vasaka: Shweta and Krishna Vasaka have similar vasicine (1.933%), good for asthma, COPD.Turmeric: C. caesia (50-60%) and C. augustifolia (373.9 mg/g) have high curcuminoids, great for anti-inflammatory uses.Ashwagandha: Vallabh

(6.469%) and Rakshita (4.5%) have high withanolides, ideal for therapeutic use.

CONCLUSION 

High-potency varieties of Ashwagandha (Vallabh, Rakshita), Turmeric (C. caesia, C. augustifolia), Tulsi (Vana, Krishna), and Vasaka offer strong therapeutic potential for respiratory health. Standardizing phytochemical markers and cultivation practices ensures efficacy and safety. Herbal therapies can complement modern treatments for asthma, COPD, and other respiratory diseases 

 

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  40. fewerky, H. K. et al. Critical review of the Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal covers phytochemistry, pharmacology, etc.
  41. Zhang H., Timmermann B. N., Withanolide Structural Revisions… J Nat Prod. 2016;79:732–742. — defines C28 ergostane + C22/C26 δ-lactone. PubMed
  42. hang H., Cao C-M., Gallagher R. J., Timmermann B. N., Antiproliferative Withanolides from the Solanaceae. Nat Prod Res. 2014;28:1941–1951. — SAR: Δ2-1-oxo + 5β,6β-epoxy motif for cytotoxicity.
  43. Wijeratne E. M. K. et al., Structure-activity relationships for withanolides… J Med Chem. 2014;57:2851–2863. — ring-A enone and oxygenation/epoxide effects (systematic SAR). PubMed
  44. Bashir A., Nabi N., Tabassum S., Afzal M., Ayoub N., An updated review on phytochemistry and molecular targets of Withania somnifera, Front. Pharmacol. 2023 (PMCID). — lists alkaloids (somniferine, anaferine, cuscohygrine), neuroprotective/adaptogenic roles and glycosides/withanosides.
  45. irjalili M. H., et al., Steroidal lactones from Withania somnifera, Molecules 2009;14:2373–2396 — general steroidal backbone description and implications.
  46. Speers AB et al., 2024 (review on quantifying withanolides in plasma; pharmacokinetics) — (review of plasma PK of withanolides)
  47. Q. Uddin et al., JAPS / review (Withania somnifera: Phytochemical & Pharmacological profile), 2012 — PDF. — lists the root alkaloids (cuscohygrine, anaferine, somniferine, withanine, etc.)U.S. EPA — Method 3540C: Soxhlet Extraction. (Revision 3, December 1996).See: Scope / Summary of method and Procedure (Sections 1.0– 7.0, esp. §2.0 and §7.0 — detailed Soxhlet steps, solvent volumes, cycles, concentration). (pp. 1–5).
  48. Xia, K. Z.; Perveen, N.; Khan, N. H. Phytochemical analysis, antibacterial and antioxidant activity determination of Ocimum sanctum. Pharm Pharmacol Int J. 2018;6(6):490–497.
  49. Rudrapal, M.; Vallinayagam, S.; Aldosari, S.; et al. Valorization of Adhatoda vasica leaves: Extraction, in vitro analyses and in silico approaches. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2023 Methods / 2.2 — pp. 1–2). 
  50. Joshi, N. D.; Kulkarni, A. A.; Cherekar, M. N. Extraction of Curcumin from Turmeric by Using Soxhlet Unit. ASIO Journal of Microbiology, Food Science & Biotechnological Innovations. 2019Method / Soxhlet extraction — pp. 12–13).
  51. Manasa, P. S. L.; Kamble, A. D.; Chilakamarthi, U. Various Extraction Techniques of Curcumin — A Comprehensive Review. ACS Omega. 2023;8:34868–34878 Section 2.1 — pp. 1–2 of the article).
  52. nternational Journal of Current Science (IJCSPUB) — A Review on Analysis of Withanolides in Withania somnifera (2025Soxhlet extraction — p. 2, lines describing SE).
  53. Deore S.L., et al. Comparative Pharmacognostical, Phytochemical and Biological Evaluation of Five Ocimum Species. Pharmacognosy Journal. 2021; Vol.13 Issue 2.

Reference

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  2. Global burden of chronic respiratory diseases and risk factors, 1990-2019: an update from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019? (Momtazmanesh et al.)
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  5. Burden of chronic respiratory diseases and their attributable risk? (Z. Cao et al., 2025)
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  7. The Mayo Clinic’s ?Asthma — Symptoms & Causes? page states that asthma causes airways to narrow, swell, and produce extra mucus, which can result in coughing, wheezing, and shortness of breath.
  8. In Oxford Textbook of Medicine, Newman Taylor & Cullinan remark that asthma is ?a chronic inflammatory disease of the bronchial airways? with reversible airway narrowing and increased airway responsiveness.
  9. The CDC’s ?Chronic Disease Indicators? page states: ?COPD accounts for most of the deaths from chronic lower respiratory diseases, the sixth leading cause of death in the United States in 2021.?
  10. A CDC MMWR report (?Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease Mortality by Industry …?) confirms that COPD was the sixth leading cause of death in the U.S. in 2020.
  11. The American Lung Association’s COPD Trends Brief similarly reports that ?in 2021, 138,825 people died from COPD, making it the sixth overall leading cause of death …?
  12. According to the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI, NIH):?Pneumonia is an infection that affects one or both lungs. It causes the air sacs, or alveoli, of the lungs to fill up with fluid or pus. Bacteria, viruses, or fungi may cause pneumonia. Symptoms can range from mild to serious and may include a cough with or without mucus (a slimy substance), fever, chills, and trouble breathing.
  13. The Mayo Clinic page ststate ?Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs. The air sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent material), causing cough with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing.? Mayo Clinic
  14. The World Health Organization (WHO) notes: ?When an individual has pneumonia, the alveoli are filled with pus and fluid, which makes breathing painful and limits oxygen intake.?
  15. The StatPearls ?Tuberculosis Overview? article offers an authoritative summary:It outlines the difference between latent and active TB, diagnostic methods (e.g. Mantoux skin test, interferon-gamma release assays), and treatment regimens.
  16. The ERS publication ?The definition of tuberculosis infection based on the spectrum? (Migliori et al., 2021) is also relevant for conceptualizing latent vs active TB.
  17. Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine : The chapter ?Pneumonia? (in various editions, e.g. 20th, 22nd) discusses pneumonia as infection of pulmonary parenchyma, alveolar filling with fluid/pus, symptoms, diagnostics, treatment, etc.(chaptet-13) 
  18. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett’s Principles and Practice of Infectious DiseasesChapter 249 is about Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
  19. 19)StatPearls entry ?Pulmonary Edema? by R. Malek et al. (2023) defines pulmonary edema as ?abnormal accumulation of extravascular fluid in the lung parenchyma,? describes symptoms (dyspnea, rales, etc.) and notes that it can be life-threatening and needs urgent management.
  20. In Clinical Fluid Therapy in the Perioperative Setting (Chapter 13: Pulmonary edema) by G. Hedenstierna, C. Frostell, J. B. Borges, the authors discuss mechanisms of pulmonary edema, hydrostatic vs permeability types, and urgency of care.
  21. The StatPearls article ?Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema? (MA Iqbal et al., 2023) also covers that pulmonary edema is accumulation of fluid in alveoli / interstitium and can be life-threatening.
  22. Ocimum sanctum linn (Tulsi) and its medicinal importance: Chandni Lohar, Ashim Das (2023)
  23. Ocimum sanctum Linn. A reservoir plant for therapeutic applications? (Singh et al.)page no. 1
  24. A Comprehensive Review of the Phytochemical Constituents and Pharmacological Properties of Ocimum tenuiflorum?published via Wiley / open access
  25. The Clinical Efficacy and Safety of Tulsi in Humans: A Systematic Review?
  26. 26)Bronchodilator activity of Ocimum sanctum Linn. (tulsi) in mild and moderate bronchial asthma? (IJBCP)McFadden ER. Asthma. In: Kasper DL, Braunwald DL … Harrison’s Principles of Internal Medicine, 16th ed; … p. 1508-11?
  27. Phytochemical and antioxidant profiling of Ocimum sanctum? A Review on Indian Plant Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) and its Medicinal Uses? (Sys Rev Pharm)
  28. Pharmacological Activities: Research published in the Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, and Cytotoxic Properties of Adhatoda vasica article highlights the therapeutic potentials of vasicine and other alkaloids found in the plant.
  29. Phytochemical Composition: A comprehensive review published in the World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research
  30. Comprehensive Phytochemical and Pharmacological Profile: A review in the Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies
  31. Ethnomedicinal Uses: An article in the International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research discusses the traditional uses of Adhatoda vasica
  32. Shoaib, A. (2021). A systematic ethnobotanical review of Adhatoda vasica (L.) Nees. Cellular and Molecular Biology, 67(4), 248-263.
  33. Khandelwal, P. (2024). Exploring the pharmacological and chemical aspects of Adhatoda vasica. ScienceDirect.
  34. Biharee, A. (2023). Ethnobotanical notes and pharmacological overview of Adhatoda vasica. Wiley Online Library.
  35. Pattanayak, P., et al. (2010). ?Ocimum sanctum Linn. A reservoir plant for therapeutic applications: A review.? Pharmacognosy Reviews, 4(7), 95–105.
  36. Pattanayak, P., et al. (2010). ?Ocimum sanctum Linn. A reservoir plant for therapeutic applications: A review.? Pharmacognosy Reviews, 4(7), 95–105.
  37. Iweala, E. J., et al. (2023). ?Curcuma longa (Turmeric): Ethnomedicinal uses and pharmacological properties.? ScienceDirect.
  38. Saleem, S., et al. (2020). ?Withania somnifera L.: Insights into the phytochemical composition and pharmacological properties.? PubMed Central.
  39. ingh, A. et al. ?Recent Advances in the Chemistry and Therapeutic Applications of Withanolides? (PMC, 2022) reviews many structural–activity relationships regarding anticancer, anti-inflammatory, etc.
  40. fewerky, H. K. et al. Critical review of the Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal covers phytochemistry, pharmacology, etc.
  41. Zhang H., Timmermann B. N., Withanolide Structural Revisions… J Nat Prod. 2016;79:732–742. — defines C28 ergostane + C22/C26 δ-lactone. PubMed
  42. hang H., Cao C-M., Gallagher R. J., Timmermann B. N., Antiproliferative Withanolides from the Solanaceae. Nat Prod Res. 2014;28:1941–1951. — SAR: Δ2-1-oxo + 5β,6β-epoxy motif for cytotoxicity.
  43. Wijeratne E. M. K. et al., Structure-activity relationships for withanolides… J Med Chem. 2014;57:2851–2863. — ring-A enone and oxygenation/epoxide effects (systematic SAR). PubMed
  44. Bashir A., Nabi N., Tabassum S., Afzal M., Ayoub N., An updated review on phytochemistry and molecular targets of Withania somnifera, Front. Pharmacol. 2023 (PMCID). — lists alkaloids (somniferine, anaferine, cuscohygrine), neuroprotective/adaptogenic roles and glycosides/withanosides.
  45. irjalili M. H., et al., Steroidal lactones from Withania somnifera, Molecules 2009;14:2373–2396 — general steroidal backbone description and implications.
  46. Speers AB et al., 2024 (review on quantifying withanolides in plasma; pharmacokinetics) — (review of plasma PK of withanolides)
  47. Q. Uddin et al., JAPS / review (Withania somnifera: Phytochemical & Pharmacological profile), 2012 — PDF. — lists the root alkaloids (cuscohygrine, anaferine, somniferine, withanine, etc.)U.S. EPA — Method 3540C: Soxhlet Extraction. (Revision 3, December 1996).See: Scope / Summary of method and Procedure (Sections 1.0– 7.0, esp. §2.0 and §7.0 — detailed Soxhlet steps, solvent volumes, cycles, concentration). (pp. 1–5).
  48. Xia, K. Z.; Perveen, N.; Khan, N. H. Phytochemical analysis, antibacterial and antioxidant activity determination of Ocimum sanctum. Pharm Pharmacol Int J. 2018;6(6):490–497.
  49. Rudrapal, M.; Vallinayagam, S.; Aldosari, S.; et al. Valorization of Adhatoda vasica leaves: Extraction, in vitro analyses and in silico approaches. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2023 Methods / 2.2 — pp. 1–2). 
  50. Joshi, N. D.; Kulkarni, A. A.; Cherekar, M. N. Extraction of Curcumin from Turmeric by Using Soxhlet Unit. ASIO Journal of Microbiology, Food Science & Biotechnological Innovations. 2019Method / Soxhlet extraction — pp. 12–13).
  51. Manasa, P. S. L.; Kamble, A. D.; Chilakamarthi, U. Various Extraction Techniques of Curcumin — A Comprehensive Review. ACS Omega. 2023;8:34868–34878 Section 2.1 — pp. 1–2 of the article).
  52. nternational Journal of Current Science (IJCSPUB) — A Review on Analysis of Withanolides in Withania somnifera (2025Soxhlet extraction — p. 2, lines describing SE).
  53. Deore S.L., et al. Comparative Pharmacognostical, Phytochemical and Biological Evaluation of Five Ocimum Species. Pharmacognosy Journal. 2021; Vol.13 Issue 2.

Photo
Dr.Bhagyesh Janugade
Corresponding author

Professor and Principal, Krishna Foundation’s Jaywant Institute of Pharmacy, Wathar. Maharashtra, India

Photo
Rohit Mahajan
Co-author

Assistant professor Krishna Foundation’s Jaywant Institute of Pharmacy, Wathar. Maharashtra, India.

Photo
Vaishnavi Patankar
Co-author

Krishna Foundation’s Jaywant Institute of Pharmacy, Wathar. Maharashtra, India.

Photo
Vaishnavi Teli
Co-author

Krishna Foundation’s Jaywant Institute of Pharmacy, Wathar. Maharashtra, India.

Photo
Neha Jadhav
Co-author

Krishna Foundation’s Jaywant Institute of Pharmacy, Wathar. Maharashtra, India.

Photo
Samina Mulla
Co-author

Krishna Foundation’s Jaywant Institute of Pharmacy, Wathar. Maharashtra, India.

Dr. Bhagyesh Janugade, Rohit Mahajan, Vaishnavi Patankar, Vaishnavi Teli, Neha Jadhav, Samina Mulla . Evaluation Of Herbal Drugs for The Prevention and Management of Respiratory Disease, Int. J. of Pharm. Sci., 2026, Vol 4, Issue 4, 3994-4007, https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.19728924

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